Construction Machineries and Techniques.pdf

SRI KRISHNA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
[An Autonomous Institution | Affiliated to Anna University and
Approved by AICTE | Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade]
KOVAIPUDUR, COIMBATORE – 641 042.
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COURSE : 23CE202 – CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES (CMT)
Theory (3 Credits)
I YEAR/II SEMESTER
Construction Machineries and Techniques
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Construction materials and techniques

Syllabus
MODULE 3: CONSTRUCTION MACHINERIES AND TECHNIQUES 15 Hrs.
Machineries for earthmoving – dewatering – concrete mixing – transporting &
placing of materials, plastering - pre-stressing jacks and grouting equipment, pile
driving, lifting (Cranes, Hoists) - Equipment Productivities – Use of drones for
spread out sites – Use of robots for repetitive activities and for modern
construction material use and manufacturing of materials – 3D printing –
Innovative modern construction tools, accessories and equipment’s – Special
construction methods: Scaffolding, shoring, underpinning, piling – Conventional
construction methods vs Mechanized methods and advantages of latter.
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Machineries for earthmoving
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Introduction
• Earth-moving machines are at the heart of any construction project.
• Indian earthmoving equipment industry is experiencing high demand.
• The Indian construction equipment market is projected to cross the $4.7 billion mark by
2025 based on the increasing smart city projects, foreign investments, and the
booming housing industry growth.
• Earth-moving activities require multipurpose heavy machinery to carry out the tasks of
digging, loading- unloading, moving large quantities of earth, grading soil, breaking
rock, landscaping, clearing out debris, demolition work, and much more.
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Excavators
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1. Excavators
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1. Excavators
• An excavator is one of the most valuable pieces of heavy construction equipment on-
site.
• It is used for digging trenches, holes, and foundations.
• It consists of an operator cabin, undercarriage, boom, stick, and bucket.
• The operator cabin, popularly known as the house, sits on top of the undercarriage with
tracks or wheels.
• A hydraulic excavator relies on the power of hydraulic fluid, hydraulic cylinders, and
a hydraulic motor to accomplish its tasks.
• Several types of excavators are available, each with different features that assist in the
task at hand on the construction site.
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1. Excavators
• For example, tracked excavators are suitable for digging, material handling, and
demolition.
• In contrast, mini-excavators are small and lightweight, making them ideal for
trenching and utility work.
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JCB stands for Joseph Cyril Bamford Excavators Ltd

2. Backhoe loader
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2. Backhoe loader
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2. Backhoe loader
• The backhoe loader is heavy construction machinery combined with three types of
construction equipment.
• It consists of a tractor, a loader, and a backhoe.
• Their mobility makes them suitable for earth-moving activities in urban areas.
• They are used for excavation works, digging trenches, placing pipes, filling trenches,
lifting materials, etc.
• Backhoe loaders are one of the most popular earthmoving machinery in India.
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3. Wheel Loader
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3. Wheel Loader
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3. Wheel Loader
• Wheel loaders, also known as front loaders, are versatile heavy-duty machinery with a
high load carrying capacity.
• The primary purpose of a wheel loader on-site is to dig, carry, haul, and transport
material on-site.
• A wheel loader consists of an arm with a hauling bucket or scoop that efficiently carries
large-scale materials.
• Besides construction sites, they can also be used for agricultural and landscaping
purposes.
• Loaders come in various sizes, making them ideal for projects of any size.
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4. Motor grader
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4. Motor grader
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4. Motor grader
• The motor grader is heavy-duty machinery with a multipurpose long blade.
• Motor graders are primarily used in civil construction, roadworks, and mining sites to
create smooth roads.
• Graders have special attachments that make them multipurpose, like a ripper, scarifier,
blade, or compactor.
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5. Skid-steer loader
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• Skid-steer loaders are tyre-mounted, small-sized construction machinery commonly
used on construction sites with space restrictions.
• The machine has lift arms designed to latch onto several attachments.
• The wheels of the skid-steer loader are locked in synchronisation on each side. This
mechanism allows the left-side drive wheels to be driven independently of the right-side
wheels.
• The skid-steer loader has a tough and rigid frame.
• Robust wheel bearings are required to prevent torsional force caused due to motion
from damaging this machine.
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6. Dozers
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6. Dozers
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7. Dozers
• Dozers are track-mounted, heavy-duty construction machines commonly used on large-
scale construction sites.
• Equipped with a front-mounted metal blade, bulldozers excel at pushing large
quantities of soil, sand, rubble, and other materials.
• Their tracks provide superior traction and mobility on uneven terrain, making them
ideal for challenging environments.
• Different types of blades, such as S-blade, U-blade, and angle blade, enhance its
versatility.
• This machinery is essential for efficiently handling material-moving projects, ensuring
productivity and safety on construction sites.
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8. Articulated Dump Truck
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• An articulated dump truck, or ADT or articulated hauler, is a powerful and specialised
vehicle widely used in the construction and mining industries.
• It is designed with a unique articulating joint that allows the truck to navigate through
challenging terrains and uneven surfaces with exceptional manoeuvrability.
• The ADT consists of a front cabin where the driver sits and a rear dump bed for material
handling.
• The articulation joint between these sections provides flexibility and stability,
enabling the truck to traverse rough terrain while maintaining traction on all wheels.
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Machineries for dewatering
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• Dewatering equipment are used to perform dewatering on construction sites, which is
defined as the process of separating water from another material like saturated soil or
sludge.
• Its saves money by reducing solids handling and disposal expenses.
• It is an alternative and economical option compared with heat drying systems for water
removal.
• The selection of dewatering equipment depends on the corrosion potential of the
material removed and the contaminants present in the liquid.
• As the reactivity of the liquid increases, the equipment is constructed with more
durable materials.
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Types of Dewatering Equipment
• Centrifuges
• Drying beds
• Vacuum filters
• Filter presses
• Sludge lagoons
• Gravity and low-pressure devices
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1. Centrifuges
• Centrifuges remove solids from liquids through the process of sedimentation and
centrifugal force.
• The solids or sludge are fed through the stationary feed tube.
• The sludge moves with an acceleration through the ports in the conveyor shaft, which
is then distributed to the periphery of the bowl.
• The bow spins at high speed which simultaneously separates water from the solids.
• The separated solids are compacted against the bowl wall.
• The solids are then conveyed to the centrifuges drying stage and the liquid separated
is discharged continuously over the weir arrangements around the sides of the bowl.
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2. Vacuum Filters
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2. Vacuum Filters
• A vacuum filter is an equipment that creates a vacuum to draw water from the solids.
• The filter consists of a drum submerged on a cake or sludge.
• A filtering medium is placed over the drum.
• The whole arrangement of valves and pipes is such that the vacuum is applied to the
inner side of the filter medium when the drum rotates.
• The rotation of the drum draws water from the sludge.
• When the drum carries the sludge to the atmosphere, the cake layer formed is chipped
by a knife blade.
• The use of vacuum filters avoids the need for heat treatment or digestion before
disposal or incineration process.
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3. Filter Presses
• This equipment uses a filter medium to separate
solids from the liquids.
• A filter press captures the solids in the pores
between two or more porous plates.
• The solids captured are then pushed into the
cavities by forcing water over them either through
plate pressure or by build-up solid pressure.
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4. Drying Beds
• It consists of a perforated or open joint drainage
pipe placed within a layer of gravel base, which is
again covered with a layer of sand.
• The sludge collected is placed over this sand layer
and allowed to dry.
• The water from the sludge is removed by
evaporation and by gravity movement to the
underlying gravel base.
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4. Drying Beds
• This water is taken out through the drainage pipe placed in the gravel base.
• With time, the sludge dries, and cracks develop on the surface.
• These cracks allow the evaporation of lower layers of the sludge.
The design parameters of a drying bed includes:
• Depth of sludge
• Moisture content of sludge
• Availability of sand bed area
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5. Sludge Lagoons
• Sludge lagoons are excavated areas that are used to
deposit and dry the sludge for several months to
years.
• The depth of a sludge lagoon can vary from 2-6 feet.
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6. Gravity and Low-Pressure Devices
• These devices make use of a set of drying beds and low
pressure pressing devices.
• The low-pressure belt presses and the gravity bed allows
increased solid-water separation.
• The equipment offers simplicity, low cost, less noise, low
energy, and maintenance costs.
• This is a good choice for smaller treatment and operation
plants.
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Dewatering Equipment Selection Considerations
• Drying requirements
• Cost
• Sludge characteristics
• Available area
• An engineer or industrial buyer must be aware of the sludge characteristics or
corrosion potential of the water to be dewatered.
• The solids separated may possess hazardous contaminants or undesirable
composition that may affect the performance of the equipment.
• For highly reactive sludge, the dewatering equipment like filter presses or
gravity/low-pressure devices demand chemical conditioning prior to dewatering.
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Concrete mixing
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Concrete mixing
• A concrete mixer is a machine used in construction to mix cement, water, and other
materials, such as sand, gravel, and sometimes additives, to make concrete.
• Concrete mixers can be either stationary or portable and are available in various
sizes, from small portable mixers that can be transported by hand to large industrial-
sized mixers used on construction sites.
• Construction sites can save time and labour while reducing the formation of cement
lumps.
• These mixers boost worker productivity and result in a more efficient and cost-
effective process.
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Concrete mixing
Types of Concrete Mixers
• There are various types of mixers available, and each type is designed to meet specific
requirements depending on the nature of the materials being mixed and the
desired outcome.
• Twin Shaft Mixer
• Vertical Axis Mixer
• Concrete Batch Mixers
• In-transit Mixer
• Continuous Mixers.
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Concrete mixing
Twin Shaft Mixer
• Twin shaft mixers are known for their high intensity mixing in short period of time.
• These mixers are typically used for high strength concrete in batches of 2.6 – 7.8
cubic yards
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Concrete mixing
Vertical axes mixer
Vertical axis mixers are most commonly used for the production of coloured concrete and
smaller batches of 0.98 – 3.9 cubic yards
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Concrete mixing
In-transit mixer
• Its made to transport and mix concrete up to the construction site
• It can be charged with dry materials and water, with mixing occuring during
transport
• with this process , the materials has already been mixing.
• It maintain the material’s liquid state through turning of the drum until delivery in-
transit mixer
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Concrete mixing
1) Concrete Batch Mixer
• A Concrete Batch Mixer is used in the
construction industry to mix a specific
quantity of concrete at a time.
• It is suitable for small to medium-sized
construction projects where the demand for
concrete is not too high.
• The concrete batch mixer typically consists of
a drum or container to which all the
ingredients are added in a predetermined
order.
• The ingredients usually include cement,
sand, water, and aggregates such as
crushed stone or gravel.
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Concrete mixing
1) Concrete Batch Mixer
• This mixer comes in different sizes, and the size of the mixer is determined by the
amount of concrete that needs to be mixed.
• Small batch mixers can hold up to 1 cubic yard of concrete, while larger mixers can
hold up to 6 cubic yards of concrete or more.
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Concrete mixing
a) Drum Mixer
• A Drum Mixer, also known as a barrel mixer, is a type of mixer used in the
construction industry to mix large quantities of concrete or cement.
• It consists of a drum or barrel that rotates on its axis, with blades or fins attached to
the inside of the drum that help to mix the concrete as it rotates.
• An advantage is their ability to mix large quantities of concrete efficiently.
• They are also easy to operate and require less labour compared to other types of
mixers.
• This makes them suitable for both small and large construction projects and can be
used to mix concrete, mortar, or any other construction material.
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Concrete mixing
• Drum mixers can be further classified into three categories: tilting drum mixers, non-
tilting drum mixers and reversing drum mixers.
i. Tilting Drum Mixer
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Concrete mixing
i. Tilting Drum Mixer
• Tilting Drum Mixers are designed with a tilting drum that can be rotated to pour out
the mixed concrete or cement.
• This makes them a popular choice for construction projects where material needs to
be quickly unloaded.
• These mixers consist of a drum tilted on its axis, allowing the mixed material to be
poured out of the drum into a designated area.
• Tilting Drum Mixers requires less manual effort, as the drum can easily pour out
mixed material.
• This makes them a popular choice for small to medium-sized construction projects.
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Concrete mixing
ii. Non-Tilting Drum Mixer
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Concrete mixing
ii. Non-Tilting Drum Mixer
• Unlike Tilting Drum Mixers, Non-Tilting Drum mixers do not have a tilting
mechanism and rely on manual labour to unload the mixed material.
• One of the advantages of this concrete mixer is its simple design and easy operation.
• They also have a relatively low maintenance requirement.
• However, one of the main drawbacks is their inability to unload the mixed material
automatically.
• This requires manual labour to unload the mixed material, which may be
inefficient for large construction projects.
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Concrete mixing
iii. Reversing Drum mixer
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Concrete mixing
iii. Reversing Drum mixer
• A reversing drum mixer’s drum can rotate in both directions, allowing the mixing
blades to effectively mix the material.
• The drum has mixing blades or fins attached to the inside of the drum to help mix the
material.
• One of the advantages of this type of mixer is its ability to produce highly
homogeneous concrete mixes, including wet and dry mixes.
• However, their relatively high cost may make them less attractive for some
construction projects.
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Concrete mixing
b) Pan-Type Concrete Mixer
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Concrete mixing
b) Pan-Type Concrete Mixer
• It is also known as a circular mixer because of its circular-shaped mixing pan.
• This concrete mixer consists of a circular mixing pan mounted horizontally on a frame
with wheels.
• One advantage is its ability to produce highly homogeneous concrete mixes.
• Pan-type concrete mixers are also suitable for producing different concrete mixes,
including wet/dry mixes, mortar, plaster, and refractory materials.
• The main drawbacks is their lower mixing capacity compared to others
• They may not be suitable for larger construction projects that require high-capacity
mixing equipment.
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Concrete mixing
2. Continuous Mixer
• Also known as continuous flow mixers, are a type of mixer used in the construction
industry to mix concrete or other construction materials.
• Unlike batch mixers, which mix a set amount of material at a time, this cement mixer
mixes materials continuously as they move through the mixing chamber.
• The material is continuously fed into the mixing chamber at one end, while the
mixed material is continuously discharged from the other end.
• This process's advantage is its ability to produce large volumes of homogeneous
material quickly and efficiently.
• It can be used to mix a wide range of construction materials.
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Transporting & placing of materials
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• Concrete is a complex material of cement, sand, coarse aggregate, water and chemical
admixtures (if required).
• Making of concrete is very easy, but the concrete produced by a mixer is required to
be transported for the placement and which is very important.
• Proper transportation of concrete the most essential because it affects the quality of
concrete.
• Concrete should be transported to the construction job site in a certain time before
its initial setting time and its handling may also produce segregation and loss of
slump if the distance is long or time is more.
• Transportation of concrete mix is defined as the transferring of concrete from the
mixing plant to the construction site.
• The main objective in transporting concrete is to ensure that the water-cement
ratio, slump of concrete or consistency of concrete workability, air content, and
homogeneity are not modified from their intended states and also prevent
segregation and bleeding.
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Importance of Transporting Concrete
• Transportation of concrete must be well thought out and organized efficiently.
• Normally thirty minutes of transportation time is acceptable for small jobs.
• For a central or portable plant like a ready-mix plant, concrete should be discharged
from agitating transporting equipment within two hours.
• If the non-agitating transporting equipment is used, this time is reduced to one
hour. All delays must be avoided to prevent honeycombing or cold joints.
• There are many factors that determine which type of transportation is most suitable
for concreting and taken into consideration when choosing the mode of transportation
of concrete.
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Importance of Transporting Concrete
• Type and constituents of the concrete mix,
• Weather conditions such as humidity, temperature, wind speed etc.,
• Size of construction
• Type of construction
• Topography
• Location of the batching plant
• Cost of transportation
• If you choose the wrong mode of transportation, concrete might get segregated and
useless. Most important that the adequate mode is selected as per requirements.
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Methods for Transporting Concrete
• After many years of development of the concrete technology, there are a wide variety
of equipment from hand tools to heavy industrial machinery with methods
(techniques)for transporting concrete.
• Here we have mentioned various methods or equipment for transporting concrete
according to its direction of transportation such as horizontal or vertical above
the ground level and vertically below the ground level etc.
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01. Mortar Pan
• Mortar pan is used when the concrete is
carried out in small quantities.
• In this method, the greater surface area of
concrete is exposed to drying conditions
and results in a great loss of water
particularly in hot weather concreting.
• Remember that the mortar pan should be
clean and wet at the starting of concrete
transportation.
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02. Wheelbarrow
• The wheelbarrow is used for transporting
concrete at ground level.
• It’s another normal way after mortar pan
for transporting concrete ground level.
• If the transportation distance is long or
ground is rough, wheelbarrows are
provided with the pneumatic wheel to avoid
segregation of concrete due to vibration.
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03. Crane Bucket and Ropeway
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• A tower crane bucket and ropeway are the methods for transporting concrete above
the ground level.
• Crane is used for transporting concrete horizontally as well as vertically and also
in an inclined way so that it is also called two- or three-dimensional transport.
• It is a familiar way in medium and large sites in high rise construction projects.
• In this method transportation of concrete is fast and the placement of concrete
takes place at the particular point.
• Crane consists of skips or buckets for containing concrete.
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• Ropeway buckets are more suitable for concrete work in the valley, dam site, pier
in the river and over some obstruction etc.
• There are various types of crane available according to the site, height and radius of
operation such as tower crane, crawler mounted, derrick crane, wheel mounted,
a hydraulic crane etc.
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04. Chute
• A chute is adapted for transporting concrete
from ground level to the lower level.
• It is used when the labour can’t reach the
place of concrete due to the less space like
trenches.
• The surface should have some slope not
flatter than 1 vertical to 2.5 horizontal.
• Concrete may get slightly compact mass
without any separation or segregation.
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05. Skip and Hoist
• Skip and hoist are adopted for
transporting concrete vertically for
high rise building construction.
• At a ground level, skip is directly fed by
the mixer and at the discharging point,
it discharges automatically or
manually.
• Skip is a travel on the vertical rail for
the transporting concrete.
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06. Transit Mixer
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06. Transit Mixer
• Transit mixer is one of the most popular equipment for transporting concrete over a
long distance mostly in RMC plant (Ready Mixed Concrete plant).
• Transit mixer is mounted on the truck and maybe having a capacity of 4 to 7 m3.
• Concrete is continuously agitated in the truck with 2 to 6 revolution per minute.
• A small pump is fitted on a truck mixer for discharge concrete.
• Concrete which fed in the mixer can be either dry or wet mix.
• If the mix is wet then it must reach the site in 1 or 1.5 hours.
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07. Belt Conveyors
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07. Belt Conveyors
• It is used for a small horizontal distance such as 5-meter to 10-meter.
• The initial cost of setting up of the belt conveyor is high.
• It can place large volumes of concrete quickly where access is limited.
• Concrete may get to segregate in steep inclines as the belt passes over the rollers.
• It is suggested that low slump concrete is used for slower moving belts and higher
slump concrete by faster moving belts.
• If this method used in adverse weather conditions such as hot and windy, the long
reaches of the belt must be covered.
• If there is any breakdown of machines, a large amount of concrete in the belt needs
removal by other means and the belt is to be cleaned and washed.
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08. Pumps and Pipelines
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• Pumping of concrete is universally accepted and more reliable method.
• Its working starts with the suction stroke which sucks the concrete inside the pipe.
• For the suction and delivery of concrete, a piston is provided.
• It’s essential to choose the correct diameter and wall thickness of the pipeline to
match the pump and requirements of placing rate.
• For long horizontal distance, high pumping pressure is required for that large
diameter pipe would be an ideal choice to account for less resistance to flow.
• If you need to pump concrete to height, due to the gravity and the weight of
concrete in the line, a smallest possible diameter of pipelines should be used.
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• How far concrete can be pumped, it is usually depending on the types of pump and
the concrete mix design like slump or workability etc.
• If you select a high-pressure pump and also give special attention to concrete mix
design than you would be able to pump concrete to a height (vertical) over 400 m and
a horizontal distance of over 2000 m.
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09. Tremie
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09. Tremie
• Tremie is the most common method for underwater transportation of concrete,
tremie pipe is used for that.
• This word “tremie” is derived after the French word hopper.
• A tremie pipe is a pipe having a diameter of about 20 cm capable of easy coupling for
an increase or decrease of length.
• A funnel is fitted to the top end to facilitate pouring of concrete.
• The bottom end is closed with a plug or thick polyethene sheet or such other
material and taken below the water and made to rest at the point where the concrete is
going to be placed.
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10. Dumpers and Trucks
• Dumpers and trucks are the
ordinary open steel tipping lorries
used for long hauls in horizontal
transport at ground level.
• It’s used for large concrete works.
• This method may also cause
segregation because of the jolting
during transit.
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11. Monorail System
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11. Monorail System
• Monorail system consists of a track and a power wagon mounted on the single rail
track, which can move at a speed of 80-90 meter/minute.
• This method is used in the construction of tunnels, dams and other such kinds of
constructions.
• Segregation is likely to take place due to jolting of concrete in the wagon over each
rail joint.
• Hence, wet mixes are generally not suitable for monorail system transport.
• Transporting concrete affects the quality of concrete and as specified above, the
successful transportation of concrete requires the careful management of various
factors.
• Once the appropriate transporting equipment and method are chosen and the
important factors are addressed, concrete is ready to move on to the next critical
step, known as placing.
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Pre-stressing jacks
Pre-stressing jacks, used in construction for introducing stress into concrete
structures, come in both mono-strand and multi-strand types, with hydraulic pumps
used to apply the necessary force.
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Pre-stressing jacks
Purpose:
Pre-stressing jacks are used to apply tensile force (stress) to steel strands (or wires)
embedded in concrete, which is then transferred to the concrete after it hardens,
creating a structure with enhanced strength and durability.
Types:
Mono-strand jacks: These are used for tensioning single strands or multiple strands
one by one.
Multi-strand jacks: These are designed for stressing multiple strands simultaneously,
often used in post-tensioning where strands are grouped to form tendons.
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Pre-stressing jacks
Pre-tensioning vs. Post-tensioning:
Pre-tensioning: Steel strands are tensioned before
the concrete is cast and then released, transferring the
force to the concrete after it sets.
Post-tensioning: Steel strands are tensioned after the
concrete has hardened, with the force applied directly
to the concrete.
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Pre-stressing jacks
Applications:
• Pre-stressed concrete structures are common in bridges, beams, slabs, and other
structural elements where strength and durability are critical.
Working principle:
• Jacks use hydraulic pressure to apply the tensile force to the steel strands.
• Wedge grips or other systems are used to hold the strands during tensioning and
after the force has been applied.
• The jack is removed after the concrete gains sufficient strength and the force is
transferred to the concrete.
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Grouting equipments
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Grouting equipments
• Grouting, in the context of construction, is a specialised process that involves
injecting a fluid-like material into gaps, voids, or spaces within structures.
• Its purpose is to improve structural integrity, enhance load-bearing capacity, and
provide stability to various elements of a construction project.
• By filling these gaps, grouting prevents the accumulation of water, air, or debris,
which could otherwise weaken the structure over time.
• The critical aspect is that the grout fills the gaps that the construction material
cannot fill on its own, essentially acting as a "glue" binding everything together.
• By preventing movement, the application of grout significantly reduces the risk of
settling, shifting, or deterioration of the construction over time.
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Grouting equipments
• This not only extends the lifespan of the structure but also contributes to the safety of
occupants and the surrounding environment.
• It helps achieve better quality in construction and enhances the longevity of
construction components.
• Grouting equipment in construction includes mixers, pumps, agitators, and
injection machines.
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Grouting equipments
Grouting equipment
• Grout mixer pump: A combination of a mixer, agitator,
and grout pump.
• Injection grouting machine: A high pressure machine
used for structure perfusion.
• Grout colloidal mixers: Help compensate for plastic
shrinkage and settlement in grout.
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Grouting equipments
Grouting materials
Cement grout
Used to strengthen structures like bridges, dams, and marine applications
Chemical grout
Made of compounds like polyurethane or acrylate, which expand when injected to fill
gaps and seal against water
Resin grout
Made of resin-based materials, which are used to reinforce and stabilize structures
Bentonite grout
Made of bentonite slurry, which is injected into the ground to improve soil or rock
stability
Epoxy grout
Made of epoxy resin and a hardener, which is known for its strength and durability
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Grouting equipments
Grouting applications
• Soil stabilization
• Structural repairs
• Sealing cracks
• Creating watertight barriers
• Improving structural integrity
• Enhancing load-bearing capacity
• Providing stability
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Pile driving equipment
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• Pile driving equipment in construction refers to machines and tools used to drive
piles (elongated structural elements) into the ground.
• To create foundations for buildings, bridges, and other structures, and includes
items like piling rigs, pile hammers (hydraulic, diesel, or vibratory), and
associated components.
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Types of Pile Driving Equipment:
Piling Rigs:
• These are specialized machines that hold and guide
the piles while the driving process is underway.
Pile Hammers:
• These are the driving force, transferring energy to drive
the piles into the ground.
• Hydraulic Hammers: Use hydraulic energy to drive
the hammer head, which strikes the pile, typically
used in modern construction.
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Types of Pile Driving Equipment:
• Diesel Hammers: Use a diesel engine to power the hammer, lifting a heavy ram, and
releasing it to strike the pile.
• Vibratory Hammers (Vibro Hammers): Use high-frequency vibrations to loosen
the soil, allowing the piles to be driven into the ground.
Rotary Drilling Rigs:
• Used for creating piles in challenging soil conditions, allowing for drilling and pile
installation.
Other components:
• Pile cushion, hammer cushion, and pile driving rigs are also important
components for efficient and safe operation.
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Working principle
1. Positioning:
• The piling rig or a similar structure guides the pile into the desired location and holds
it in place.
2. Driving:
• The pile hammer, whether hydraulic, diesel, or vibratory, delivers force to drive the
pile into the ground.
3. Cushions:
• Pile driving cushions and hammer cushions absorb shock and prevent damage to
both the pile and the hammer during the driving process.
4. Pile Installation:
• Once the pile is driven to the required depth, it provides the necessary foundation
support for the structure.
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Applications:
Foundation Support:
• Pile driving is essential for creating foundations for buildings, bridges, roads, docks,
walls, and railways.
Retaining Structures:
• Piling machines are used to drive sheet piles for creating retaining walls, cofferdams,
or excavation support systems.
Specific Uses:
• Photovoltaic pile drivers are used to install piles for securing solar panels and
brackets.
Other Applications:
• They can also be used in drilling engineering, geological exploration, and
engineering blasting projects.
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https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/pile-driving-equipment-types-uses/17605/

lifting (Cranes, Hoists)
• In construction, cranes and hoists are vital hoisting equipment used to lift and move
heavy materials and objects.
• Cranes primarily used for horizontal movement and larger loads, while hoists
focus on vertical lifting, particularly in confined spaces.
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Cranes:
Function:
Cranes are large, powerful machines designed for lifting, lowering, and moving heavy
objects, including horizontal movement.
Key features:
Boom: A long, extendable arm for reaching high and far.
Jib: A secondary arm that can extend from the main boom.
Hoisting mechanism: A system for lifting and lowering the load, often using wire
ropes or chains.
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Common types:
Mobile cranes: Truck-mounted, rough-terrain,
all-terrain, crawler, and railroad cranes.
Fixed cranes: Tower cranes.
Applications:
• Deconstructing large structures,
• Transporting materials, and
• Lifting heavy components on construction
sites.
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Hoists:
• Hoists lift and lower by use of a chain, cable, wire or rope.
• In this sense, cranes are also a type of hoist because they employ wires, cables or ropes
for moving objects from one place to another.
• For small applications, hoists in conjunction with pulleys can be operated by hand.
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Function:
Hoists are primarily used for vertical lifting,
often in limited spaces like factories and
warehouses.
Common Types:
Overhead crane hoists : mounted on
overhead crane structures for both
horizontal and vertical movement.
Chain hoists: Operated manually using a
hand chain or lever to lift or lower a load.
Air hoists: Use compressed air to power the
lifting mechanism.
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Applications:
• Lifting and moving materials, equipment, and components within a confined
space or facility.
• In assembly lines and workstations for lifting and positioning objects.
• Suitable for vertical material lifting operations in limited spaces such as factories
and warehouses
Advantages of Hoists
Ergonomics: Reduce strain on operators by doing the heavy lifting.
Flexibility: Easily re-fitted for longer lifting capability.
Indoor/Outdoor Use: Can be used both inside facilities and outdoors.
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Special construction methods
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Scaffolding
• When the height above floor level exceeds about 1.5 m a temporary structure
,usually of timber , is erected close to the work to provide a safe working platform for
the workers and to provide a limited space for plant and building materials.
• The temporary frame work is known as scaffolding or simply a scaffold.
• It is useful in construction , demolition ,maintenance or repair works.
2025-03-28 104

Scaffolding
Types - Supported Scaffolding
• This type of scaffolding usually consists of an
individual or a set of platforms that are
supported by fixed load-bearing elements like
poles, outriggers, etc.
• These are set up from the ground up unlike with
suspended scaffolding materials.
• It is thus one of the safest and efficient
scaffold types for the construction industry.
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Scaffolding
Swing Set or Suspended Scaffolding
• Platforms are suspended by ropes or some
other flexible, overhead support.
• These are specially used for high up jobs such
as working on the 30th floor of a building
where supported scaffolding parts from the
ground surface are neither feasible nor practical.
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Scaffolding
Mobile Scaffolding
• Stationary scaffolds can only be set up at a specific
location while doing a particular task but when
mobile scaffolds can be easily used at other
locations covering a greater area of the project
site without being taken apart and rebuilding
again which makes it an effective asset for several
purposes.
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Scaffolding
Ref - https://scaffoldpole.com/suspended-scaffolding/
2025-03-28 108
Main Scaffolding Types Used in Construction
Single or Brick Layer Scaffolding Double or Independent or Mason’s Scaffolding

Scaffolding
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Steel or Tubular Scaffolding Cantilever or Needle Scaffolding

Scaffolding
2025-03-28 110
Cuplock or Ringlock Scaffolding System Kwikstage Scaffolding System

Scaffolding
2025-03-28 111
Staircase Tower or Haki Scaffolding System Frame and Brace Scaffolding

Scaffolding
2025-03-28 112
Mast Climbing Scaffolding Patented Scaffolding

Shoring
• It is the means of providing support to get stability of a structure temporarily
under certain circumstances during construction, repair or alteration.
• The stability of a structure is endangered due to removal of a defective portion of
the structure and unequal settlement during construction itself or in long run.
• Certain alterations are to be done in present structure itself. Eg: remodeling of
walls, changing position of windows,etc.
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Shoring
• Alterations are carried out in adjacent building for remodeling, strengthening of
foundation, etc.
• For shoring timber or steel tubes may be used. Sometimes both are used in
combination.
• If timber is used its surface should be coated with a preservative so as to protect
against wet rot.
• The shoring should be designed based on the load it has to sustain and duration of
load.
• Shoring may be given internally or externally depending on the case and in certain
cases they may be provided on either side of the wall to produce additional stability.
• There is no time limit to which the shoring has to be kept, it may range from weeks
to years depending on the case.
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Shoring
Types Shoring
• Raking or inclined shores
• Flying or horizontal shores
• Dead or vertical shores - Video 1 and 2
• H or I-Beam Shoring
• Secant Pile Shoring
• Contiguous Pile Shoring
• Diaphragm Walls
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Shoring
Raking or inclined shores
• The inclined supports are given to the external
walls from the ground.
• It consists of wall plate, rakers, bracings, and
sole plate
• Wall plate is placed against wall and secured by
means of needles which penetrate into wall about
150 mm.
• The wall plate distribute the pressure evenly.
• The rakers are interconnected by struts or
braces or lacings.
• The feet of rakers are stiffened by braces or hoop
iron and connected to sole plate by iron dogs.
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Shoring
Flying or horizontal shores
• In this the horizontal supports are given to
parallel walls which have become unsafe due to the
removal or collapse of the intermediate building.
• They are of two types i. Single flying shore ii. Double
flying shore
i. Single flying shore
• It consists of wall plate , needles, cleats, struts,
straining pieces and folding wedges.
ii. Double flying shore
• When the distance between walls is more double
flying shore is provided.
• It is used when span exceeds 9m and upto 12m.
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Shoring
Single and double flying shores
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Shoring
Dead or vertical shores
• In this arrangement the horizontal members called
needles are supported by vertical members called
Dead shores.
• The needles are driven at right angles to the wall
through the holes made in the wall.
• The dead shores are used under following
circumstances
1. The lower part of the wall has become defective.
2. The foundations are to be deepened.
3. The lower part of the wall is to be rebuilt.
4. The large openings are made in the existing wall.
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Shoring
H or I-Beam Shoring
• Common shoring types is the H or I-Beam Shoring. Another name is soldier pile walls.
• Depending on the soil type, you can either drive prefabricated steel I or H sections into
the ground by first drilling the soil or vibrate directly into the ground without having
to drill the soil first.
• To construct the complete shoring wall, concrete panels are pre-cast and installed
between the steel beams already in the soil.
Uses
2025-03-28 120
• The use of this type of shoring ranges from supporting
excavation with a depth between 1.2 meters to that
of a depth of 5 meters.
• However, it can exceed 5 meters, as long as it’s design
accounts for the surcharge load along its perimeter.

Shoring
Secant Pile Shoring
• Its construction involves the intersection of two
piles combination, a “reinforced” or “secondary”
and an “un-reinforced” or “primary” pile.
• Forming a continuous wall by interlocking each
other.
Uses
• For cases where there are no rooms for open
excavation, secant pile shoring is the best option.
• The design must take into consideration the
surcharge load due to the structure of close
proximity.
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Shoring
Contiguous Pile Shoring (Tangent Pile shoring )
2025-03-28 122
• It consists of piles, tightly spaced, and the name tangent pile shoring comes from
the fact that the piles lie tangent to each other.

Shoring
Uses
• For clay soils or areas where water is not so important or areas of very minimal
water pressure.
• It can help retain dry granular material.
• However, in water-bearing granular soil, this type of shoring will allow water seepage
through the gap in the piles.
• Grouting the gaps in the pile, forming a watertight wall, can prevent the water
seepage.
• Additionally, Contiguous Pile shoring is not suited for a high groundwater table,
especially without dewatering works.
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Shoring
Diaphragm walls Shoring
• Diaphragm walls come into play when the
above mentioned shoring types do not fit for the
excavation depth.
• Its construction is reinforced concrete.
• Diaphragm walls are flexible as its design takes
into consideration the load that needs to be
resisted.
• Basically, for deep excavations like basements
and tunnels, this is a good option.
2025-03-28 124
https://dailycivil.com/types-of-shoring-in-construction/

Underpinning
2025-03-28 125

Underpinning
• It is the method of supporting the structures while providing new foundations or
carrying out repairs and alterations without disturbing the stability of existing
structures.
• It is carried under following conditions:
• When a building with deep foundation is to be constructed adjoining a building
which is built on shallow footings.
• Here the shallow footings should be strengthened first.
• In order to protect an existing structure from the danger of excessive or differential
settlement of foundation.
• In order to improve the bearing capacity of foundation so as to sustain heavier loads
for which deepening or widening of foundation is done.
• In order to provide a basement for an existing structure.
Video – 1 Video – 2 Video - 3
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Underpinning
Methods of underpinning
• Underpinning by cantilever needle beam method.
• Mass concrete underpinning method (pit method)
• Pier and beam underpinning method.
• Pile method of underpinning.
• Mini piled underpinning.
• Jack Pile Method of Underpinning
• Pre-test method of underpinning
• Chemical method of underpinning.
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Underpinning
Underpinning by cantilever needle beam method.
2025-03-28 128
• The cantilever needle beam
method involves inserting a
beam (needle beam)
through a wall to support it
during excavation or repair.
• With the beam supported by
a strong interior column or
piles, allowing for controlled
excavation and foundation
reinforcement.

Underpinning
Mass concrete underpinning method (pit method)
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Underpinning
Mass concrete underpinning method (pit method)
• Pit or mass concrete underpinning is one of the earliest techniques.
• Procedures are carried out to increase the size of the present foundation until a
stable layer is attained.
• Stages or pegs are used to reveal the soil beneath the current foundation.
• After the desired layers have been reached, the excavation is backfilled with concrete
and left to dry before the next removal process can begin.
• Adding a dry sand-cement pack as a second linchpin helps shift the weight from
the old to the new base.
• This simple method is effective due to the light foundation.
• Better options exist to address more intricate issues at the ground level.
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Underpinning
Pile method of underpinning.
2025-03-28 131

Underpinning
Pile method of underpinning.
• The driving technique is utilized to install piles as part of the piling method for
underpinning a foundation.
• Driving piles are placed on either side of the wall to strengthen it.
• The borehole is normally supported by piles that have been under-reamed.
• Steel or concrete “needles” are regularly driven into the wall and connected to the
foundation piles.
• These metal or cement piles serve as a support structure and a pile cap.
• Water-logged soils, clay, and shaky bearing stratum are ideal conditions for installing
underpinning piles.
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Underpinning
Jack Pile Method of Underpinning:
2025-03-28 133
• When the cost of traditional underpinning would
be prohibitive due to the depth of good bearing
capacity subsoil, Jack Pile Underpinning is an
option.
• As the pile depth may be adjusted to suit the
underlying soil, jack pile underpinning is silent,
vibration-free, and adaptable.
• Since the pile caps are cast directly onto the jack
pile heads once the hydraulic jacks have been
removed, the condition of the existing foundations
is critical.

Underpinning
Root Pile or Angle Piling For Underpinning:
2025-03-28 134
• The Root or Angle piling method utilizes
cutting-edge concrete drilling technologies
to produce concrete, reducing building
expenses and time.
• Line Pairs of reinforced concrete piles are
often installed or driven at right angles to one
another.
• Predrilling using an air-flushed percussion
drill reinforces the brick wall without
disturbing the subfloor.
• It might be challenging to install angle
piling inside a wall.
• As a result, they are stacked closely together
to ensure their stability.

Underpinning
2025-03-28 135
Pynford Stool Method for Underpinning:
• When the current foundations are in poor form, this method can be employed to
underpin the wall in one continuous run without using needles or shoring.
• The resulting reinforced concrete beam could be sufficient to distribute the weight
of the existing wall, or it could be used in conjunction with other underpinning
techniques, such as regular piles or jack piles

Underpinning
Chemical method of underpinning.
• In this method the foundation soil is consolidated by employing chemicals.
• Perforated pipes are driven in an inclined direction beneath the foundation.
• After the pipes are installed, solution of sodium silicate in water is injected
through the pipes.
• The pipes are withdrawn and at the time of withdrawal of pipes, calcium or
magnesium chloride is injected through pipes.
• Chemical reaction takes place between these two chemicals and the soil is
strengthened by consolidation. This method is suitable for granular soils.
Other methods
 Other methods are cement
Grouting, freezing, vibrofloatation, etc.
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Underpinning
Advantages of Underpinning:
• Strengthens the foundation and protects it from all kinds of disasters.
• Can add new rooms to building and add more windows and doors so that natural
light can get in.
• In basement, can get to home’s plumbing, insulation, and wiring to see if they need
to be fixed.
• It raises the value of home.
• If want to sell home in the future, it will be worth more and give you a good return if
it is well-built and has finished underpinning.
• Tto add more space to a structure in a way that costs less and causes less trouble.
• Buying a new house could be expensive if want more space, but underpinning can
save money.
• Also, won’t have to pay for expensive repairs down the road.
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Underpinning
Disadvantages of Underpinning:
• The nature of the underlying foundation method is expansive.
• When unstable and flooded ground, it is exceedingly challenging to underpin
buildings.
• On the working site, a significant volume of excavated material is dumped during
excavation.
2025-03-28 138

Piling
• Piling is the process of drilling foundations through the ground to provide more
structural strength to the weak soil underneath.
• Piling prepares the ground to carry heavy loads, such as a new home, office
complex, road or another piece of infrastructure.
2025-03-28 139

Piling
• Their primary purpose is to ensure the safety and strength of the ground before
workers build anything above.
Applications
• When the groundwater table is high
• When a heavy load of a superstructure needs additional support
• Other types of foundations are costlier or not feasible
• When the soil at shallow depth is compressible
• When there is the possibility of scouring, because of its location near the river bed or
seashore
• When there is a canal or deep drainage systems near the structure
• When soil excavation is not possible up to the desired depth because of poor soil
condition
• When it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches dry by pumping or by
any other measure
2025-03-28 140

Piling
• Their primary purpose is to ensure the safety and strength of the ground before
workers build anything above.
Applications
• When the groundwater table is high
• When a heavy load of a superstructure needs additional support
• Other types of foundations are costlier or not feasible
• When the soil at shallow depth is compressible
• When there is the possibility of scouring, because of its location near the river bed or
seashore
• When there is a canal or deep drainage systems near the structure
• When soil excavation is not possible up to the desired depth because of poor soil
condition
• When it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches dry by pumping or by
any other measure
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Piling
Selection of piles
• Assess the conditions of construction site, such as the soil, climate and other relevant
factors.
• Consult with architects to understand the scale of their infrastructure project.
• Prepare for construction challenges and decide on the most suitable piling type.
• Use a piling type that boosts the longevity and structural integrity of the foundations
below their build.
2025-03-28 142

Piling
Common pile foundations
1. Driven pile foundations
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Piling
Common pile foundations
1. Driven pile foundations
• Concrete, steel and timber are the most common materials used for driven pile
foundation method.
• Concrete piles are precast before they arrive at a construction site.
• prefabricated steel and timber piles that they can drill directly into the soil with a
piling hammer.
• In granular soils, these piles displace an equal volume of soil, helping the soil become
more solid.
• This compaction of soil increases its density; and therefore, its bearing capacity.
• Its not suitable for saturated silty soils that have a poor drainage capacity.
• The watery condition deters the compaction of the soil when you drill piles through it.
• In fact, this has the opposite effect on the soil because it decreases its ability to support
heavy loads.
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Piling
Cast-in-situ pile foundations
• Cast-in-situ foundations use concrete piles.
• Rather than bringing in precast piles to the construction site, workers drill holes into
the ground, place steel reinforcements inside and then fill the hole with concrete
instead.
• This allows them to tailor the depth of the foundation as per the project's needs and
use piles with a smaller diameter than the ones used for driven pile foundations.
2025-03-28 145

Piling
3. Combined pile foundations
• Combined pile foundations use a mix of the driven pile foundation process and the
cast-in-situ pile foundation process.
• Thus, it retains the advantages of each method.
• First, workers drive a steel shell with the same diameter as the pile into the ground.
• Next, they pour concrete into the shell to secure the foundation.
• This is a common method that engineers use to pile over water.
Types of piling
• Its depends on the depth of the excavation
• The angle at which the pile needs to be installed
• The environmental issues that impact local residents
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Piling
• End-bearing piles
• Friction piles
• Bored piles
• Driven piles
• Screwed piles
• Timber piles
• Steel piles
• Concrete piles
2025-03-28 147

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