The document summarizes key architectural features and historical context of several early Hindu temples in India. It describes the Ladh Khan Temple in Aihole as the oldest structure in the group, dating to the 5th century. It also describes the Durga Temple in Aihole, which follows the design of Buddhist Chaitya halls. Finally, it analyzes the Papanatha and Virupaksha temples at Pattadakal, with the Virupaksha Temple showing architectural advances compared to the older Papanatha Temple, demonstrating progress between the 7th and 8th centuries.

1.  Mainly on account of its primitive
appearance the temple known as Ladh
Khan is considered to be the oldest
building of the Aihole group and has
accordingly been assigned to the
middle of the 5th century.
Lad Khan Temple Aihole
Ladhkahan
Ladhkhan
 There are others of much the same
style, such as that named kont - gudi,
as well as 2 shrines in its immediately
vicinity, but Ladh Khan is the larger and
more significant.
Partially obscured and defaced by
modern accumulations, the general
appearance of this structure as it now
stands, is unimpressive.
Gowdara gudi
Kontigudi
Interior Kontigudi

2. In shape it is a comparatively low, flat - roofed building, its plan being a square of
50’ side and over all 'raises a small supplementary storey of later date.
 Three of its sides are completely enclosed by walls, two
which are relieved by perforated stone grillers, but from its fourth side, forming its
eastern front, there is projected an open pillared porch.

3. The interior consists of a hall, which
resembles a pillared pavilion, as it
contains two square groups of
columns, one within the other, thus
providing a double aisle all round.
A large stone effigy of a bull (nandi)
almost fills the central bay, while at the
far end is the cella, not, as is usual, a
chamber leading off the main hall, but
built within it, and against the back wall.built within it, and against the back wall.
With the exception of the Siva
symbol of the nandi, which has been
put into the building afterwards, for as
the dedicatory block shows, it was
erected as a Vishnu temple, it is clear
that, as far as the body of the structure
is concerned, this arrangement is
original, no part of it is an afterthought,
none of it was subsequently added.

4. The reason for such inappropriateness is
that, although it was intended for a temple, it
was an adaption of another structure devised
for an entirely different object.
This was an edifice planned for secular and
civic use, the santhagara, and the village
mote, moot or meeting hall.mote, moot or meeting hall.
The pillars of the open exterior are still
visible, but are now converted into pilasters
as the space between has been filled in with
masonry to provide seclusion for worship.
Such an alteration shut out the light, so that
the perforated windows became necessary.

5. The seating arrangements, being no
longer required in the main hall of the
temple, were omitted, but were retained
in the portico, as a concession to the
public, like those in a church porch.
 It seems not improbable that this
rather distinctive type of stone bench, or
podium, the relics of which enclose the
portico, was continued right round theportico, was continued right round the
mote - hall for the use of the members of
the assembly while its sloping back,
acting at the same time as a seat - rest,
formed a dwarf wall to keep out animal
intruders.
Apart from the extemporaneous nature
of its composition, the Ladh Khan temple
contains several notable features.

6. Although the plain square shaft and bracket capital is a characteristic of its style, an
elaboration of this occurs in the pilasters placed at each of the exterior angles of the
building.
The shafts of these taper slightly at their upper end. above which is a ‘cushion’
capital with an expanded floral abacus supporting the bracket.
This is probably the first appearance of a particular form of capital of great
importance, because it afterwards became almost universal in the architecture of
southern India, representing, at it does, the order of the Dravidian style.

7. The temple of Ladh Khan was the near product of a primitive movement is shown
by the nature of its masonry which is composed of great archaic looking blocks
dressed to level beds and placed one upon the other without any cement or similar
binding composition.
 The north face of the temple is shown. The temple's sloping two-tiered roof, which
imitates wood construction, is furnished with stone "logs" that cover the joints
between the roofing slabs.

8. The temple's design contains other unusual features (plan). The porch fronts a
square mandapa. in the center of the mandapa, a Nandi faces the small interior
shrine, which abuts the rear wall of the mandapa. Instead of the usual tower, a
rooftop shrine (the structure on top of the roof in this photo) is positioned over
the center of the mandapa.

9. PORCH: The porch ,which faces east is
Decorated with pot motifs and couples
BALCONY DECORATION: Decoration onBALCONY DECORATION: Decoration on
the outer balcony of the porch includes pots
Center, river goddess left and couples
COLUMN DECORATION: The decoration
combines motifs of kingship & fertility. Below a canopy
With royal symbols(parasol & crossed Chauris) are
Two registers with lotus flowers. Beneath those a
design with dwarf pipers (ganas) and Kirthimukhas

10. DURGA TEMPLE AT AIHOLE
In direct contrast with the
architectural formation of
the foregoing, but at the
same time illustrating
another experimental stage
in the development of the
temple structure, is the
Durga temple at Aihole.
This example is a
Brahmanical version of the
Buddhist Chaitya hall,
adapted to suit the service
of the former creed.
It has already been established that Buddhist buildings of a similar type were
not uncommon in many parts of India in the early centuries of the Christian era,
while there is an actual example at Ter, not far distant from Dharwar.

11. The Durga temple, which
most closely follows this
model, was probably erected
during the 6lh century.
It is an apsidal ended
structure measuring
externally 60’X36 but in
addition there is a large
portico on its eastern front 24’
in depth, so that its entire
length is 84’.length is 84’.
Raised on a particularly
high and heavily molded
plinth or stereobate, the
topmost tier flat roof is 30’
from the ground.
Over the apse a short
pyramidal tower, or Sikhara,
has been subsequently
added.

12. Among other notable features
in the design of the Durga
temple is its peripheral exterior,
a passage formed by the
colonnade of a verandah which
is carried right round the building
and joins up with similar pillars
comprising the portico.
This portico is approached by
2 flights of steps one on each
side of the front and inside it is aside of the front and inside it is a
vestibule, also pillared, within
which is the entrance doorway.
The interior consists of a hall
44" long and divided by 2 rows
of pillars into a nave and 2
aisles, with an apsidal shaped
cel la. at its far end, the aisles
are continued round this cella as
a processional passage.

13. Light is obtained both for the central hall and for this passage by means of stone
grillers, those at the sides being square and those is the apse circular in shape
and each is filled with an elegant carved and perforated pattern.
The roof of the nave is raised higher than that of the aisles, so that in almost
every particular, not only in the treatment of its parts, but in the nature of the
building as a whole, it is a literal re-statement of the Buddhist Chaitya hall.

15. TEMPLES OF EARLY CHALUKYAN PHASE AT PATTADAKAL
The major temples of the early
Chalukyan phase at Pattadakal are the
1. Papanatha temple,
2. Virupaksha temple.
They are the larger and more
important than the others of the group.
The Papanatha temple belongs toThe Papanatha temple belongs to
the Indo - Aryan style is certainly the
older, and it is not improbable that it
was built as the chief temple soon after
the capital was founded, possibly
before the end of the 7th century.
Apparently dedicated in the first
instance to Vishnu and surya, it seems
to have been converted afterwards to
the worship of siva.

16. The other large temple,that of Virupaksha, is shown by its inscriptions to have been
built during the reign of Vikramaditya - II, so that its mean date would be about 740 A.D.
It is dedicated to Siva and may therefore have been built to take the place of the
previous example when the Chalukyan dynasty appears to have changed over from
Vaishnavism to Saivism.
It is of some significance that of these 2 temples, Papanatha in the indo - Aryan style
is dedicated to Vishnu and the Virupaksha in the Dravidian style was built for the
worship of shiva.

17. The temple of
Papanatha, both in its plan
and in elevation, bears
every indication of a
conception in course of
formation.
In general appearance it
is a long low composition
some 90’ in length with-a
tower at its eastern end
too small and stunted totoo small and stunted to
be in good proportion with
the remainder of the
building.
Much of the inconsistency of its exterior design is brought about by the illogical
arrangement of the plan, which illustrates perceptibly the uncertainty that existed at the
time as to the correct disposition of the main elements of the structure and their relation
to one another.
 In this instance the vestibule, or antarala, is at fault, as the compartment is too large.

18. It takes the shape of a square court, containing
4 pillars widely set, so that instead of forming a
connecting antechamber, it becomes a
supplementary assembly hall.
It is this disproportion in the plan that has
produced a corresponding disproportion in the
elevation.
Turning to the more detailed treatment of the
different parts of the Papanatha temple, the interior
presents that massive solid character.
Both in the built of its walls and particularly in the
shape of its pillars, which suggests not only the rock
cut influence, but also something elemental.
The latter quality is shown in certain of the larger
details such as brackets and struts half hidden in
the upper gloom, in the form of super natural
creatures, recalling some phase of prehistoric
evolution of which all that now remains are like the
nightmares of a child, vague, awe inspiring
memories.

19. Over the outer walls is a heavy cornice above which is a parapet of ornamental
shrines, while below is a substantial basement formed of bold string courses carried
round the structure, like powerful bands binding the whole composition together.
Each niche is composed of 2 pillars, a cornice and a traceried canopy, the last being
essentially of indo - Aryan extraction.
Although all these detail especially the mural shrine motif, are pleasing features in
themselves.
Their disposition on the building shows no special knowledge of architectural design.

20. The fact that the decorative shrines are regimentated over 30 times round the
building, is evidence of a poverty of ideas and an ignorance of spacing and correct
distribution which can only be attributed to inexperience.
It was probably less than 50 years after the foregoing, that the temple of Virupaksha
was produced, but the progress made in such a relatively short period in architectural
composition is noteworthy.
So much so that it has been implied the increasing power of the Chalukyan rulers
enabled them to call in outside experts to aid the local artisans in their building efforts.

21. It becomes tolerably clear therefore that the much improved design and
execution of the Virupaksha temple were mainly due to the purposeful application of
the Chalukyan builders to - the task in hand, who during the ensuing intervals, made
it an occasion to acquire much practical proficiency.
This is seen in the better proportions and adjustment of the plan, with its resultant
effect on the external formation of the building.

22. Although by no means a finished
exposition of the essential parts of the
temple system, the size and position of
the vestibule, including the junction of
the^shrine - chamber with the pillared hall,
are logical and well - conceived, and mark
a distinct advance.
None the less there is a bold beauty in
the appearance oi the Virupaksha templethe appearance oi the Virupaksha temple
as a whole, which is best seen in the
exterior.
It is a comprehensive scheme, as it
consists not only of the central structure,
but of a detached Nandi pavilion in front
and is contained within a walled enclosure
entered by an appropriate gateway.

23. Larger in size than the previous
example as it measures 120’ from the
front of the porch to the back of the
shrine, owing to its balanced
composition it is much more pleasing
to the eye.
This satisfactory effect has been
obtained by treating the building as a
unity, so that there is a definite
coherence and rhythmic grouping of
its parts.
On the other hand, there is still that
heavy solidity characteristic of all
such early works, but here it is
relieved by an increase in the amount
and quality of the sculptured
ornamentation. This plastic
decoration resolves itself into several
classes of workmanship and it seems
not improbable that it was the
handiwork of as many separate
groups of craftsmen.