This document discusses brachial plexus injuries, including how to clinically diagnose and classify them as pre- or post-ganglionic and upper or lower plexus injuries. Physical examination findings that help differentiate these types are described. Investigations like X-ray, MRI, EMG and nerve conduction studies can provide further information to accurately diagnose the level and severity of injury. Both non-operative and surgical management options are covered, with the goals of surgery being restoration of elbow flexion, shoulder abduction and sensation in the forearm and hand. Secondary operations like tendon transfers may also be considered if needed.
anatomy of median nerve,course in arm and struthers ligament, branches in the forearm, carpal tunnel and course in hand, high and low median nerve injuries, principles of surgical management, pronator teres syndrome, anterior interosseous nerve syndrome, open and endoscopic carpal tunnel release
Brachial plexus injury (BPI) is a severe peripheral nerve injury affecting upper extremities, causing functional damage and physical disability
Root injury is defined as root avulsion from the spinal cord and rupture in the preganglionic root zone or dorsal ganglion at the vertebral foramen
Post-ganglionic injury are injuries distal to the ganglion, which divided into supra and infra-clavicular injury
Peripheral nerve damage affecting the upper extremities can vary widely in cause and extent.
Many disorders, ranging from mild carpal tunnel syndrome to severe brachial plexopathy, need to be considered in a patient presenting with pain, sensory loss, or weakness involving the shoulder, arm, or hand.
1.Anatomy
a.Course
b.Motor distribution
c.Sensory distribution
2.Common sites affected
3.Level of median nerve injury
4.Clinical feature with various test performed
5.Various syndromes related to median nerve
6.Treatment
7.Summary
anatomy of median nerve,course in arm and struthers ligament, branches in the forearm, carpal tunnel and course in hand, high and low median nerve injuries, principles of surgical management, pronator teres syndrome, anterior interosseous nerve syndrome, open and endoscopic carpal tunnel release
Brachial plexus injury (BPI) is a severe peripheral nerve injury affecting upper extremities, causing functional damage and physical disability
Root injury is defined as root avulsion from the spinal cord and rupture in the preganglionic root zone or dorsal ganglion at the vertebral foramen
Post-ganglionic injury are injuries distal to the ganglion, which divided into supra and infra-clavicular injury
Peripheral nerve damage affecting the upper extremities can vary widely in cause and extent.
Many disorders, ranging from mild carpal tunnel syndrome to severe brachial plexopathy, need to be considered in a patient presenting with pain, sensory loss, or weakness involving the shoulder, arm, or hand.
1.Anatomy
a.Course
b.Motor distribution
c.Sensory distribution
2.Common sites affected
3.Level of median nerve injury
4.Clinical feature with various test performed
5.Various syndromes related to median nerve
6.Treatment
7.Summary
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Thoracic outlet syndrome
Neurovascular symptoms in the upper extremities due to pressure on the nerves and vessels in the thoracic outlet area
The specific structures compressed are usually the nerves of the branchial plexus and occasionally the subclavian artery or subclavian vein
Anatomy
Thoracic outlet
Entrance/ Exit region of the upper limb
The thoracic outlet is defined as the interval from the supraclavicular fossa to the axilla that passes between the clavicle and the first rib
Anatomy - Scalane triangle
Anatomy of the costoclavicular space
Pectoralis minor space
Located inferior to the coracoid process
anterior to the second through fourth ribs
posterior to the pectoralis minor muscle
The cords of the brachial plexus
Axillary artery
Axillary vein.
Soft-tissue Causes (70%)
Scalene muscle
Variations in insertion
Hypertrophy
Accessory scalenus minimus muscle
Anomalous ligaments or bands
Soft-tissue tumors
Osseous Causes
Cervical rib
Prominent C7 transverse process
Displacement or callus from first rib fracture
Malunited clavicle or first rib fracture
AC or SC joint injury or dislocation
Osseous tumor
Poor posture
Drooping the shoulders
Holding the head in a forward position
Repetitive activity
Athletes and swimmers
Neurogenic TOS
Compression – scalene triangle and costoclavicular space
May be associated with normal anatomy
Traction of the lowest trunk of the brachial plexus
Often in association with arterial TOS
Features of Lower brachial plexus compression - Common
Female predominance
Appearance of Amedio Modigliani painting
Complains of pain and paresthesia extending from the shoulder /down the ulnar aspect of the arm into the medial two fingers
Neurogenic TOS
Upper brachial plexus compression C5,C6 and C7
Less common
Compression mainly occurs in scalene triangle
Symptoms
Unilateral occipito-frontal headache
Facial or jaw pain
The Gilliatt-Sumner hand
A characteristic finding of neurogenic TOS, is described as atrophy of the abductor pollicis brevis and, to a lesser degree, the hypothenar musculature and the interossei.
Venous TOS
Causes
Hypertrophy of the subclavius muscle,
Chondroma formation
Clinical presentation
Most patients are sportsmen, musicians or manual workers undertaking repetitive arm movements.
The condition occurs more commonly in the dominant limb
Male predominance
Clinical presentation
Acute presentation -
Swollen and tensed upper limb
Upper limb aching pain
blueish- purple arm due to venous engorgement
Collateral veins may be visible
Feeling of heaviness that is worse after activity
Symptoms are precipitated by working with the arms elevated and are relieved by dependency, a pathognomonic feature of vTOS.
Arterial TOS
Rare but has more devastating consequences
Caused by
Intermittent subclavian arterial compression - Costoclavicular compression with normal anatomy.
Spinal cord injuries complete topic about it and how to make good rehabilitation for the patient with spinal cord injuries .
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2. AIM
• How to diagnose brachial plexus injuries clinically
• How to differentiate pre/post ganglionic injuries
• How to classify upper/lower/complete brachial
plexus injuries
11. Upper Lesion ( C5,C6),
Erbs Palsy
Lower Lesion ( C8,T1),
Klumpke Palsy
Most common obstetric
palsy
Rare in obstetric palsy
Results from excessive
displacement of head to
opposite side and
depression of shoulder on
same side
Usually avulsion injury
caused by excessive
abduction
Arm adducted , internally
rotated, forearm pronated
and extended ( waiters tip)
Clinically presents as claw
hands
C5- axillary, suprascapular,
musculocutaneous nerve
C6 - Radial
C8, T1, Ulnar and median
nerve
Deltoid, teres minor,
supraspinatus,
infraspinatus, biceps,
brachioradialis, supinator
Intrinsic muscles of
thehand
Best prognosis Poor Prognosis
12. Physical examination
• All nerve groups controlled by the brachial plexus
• Horners syndrome
• Tinels sign
• Serratus anterior and rhomboids
Nerve Sensation Motor
Musculocutaneous Lateral forearm Elbow flexion
Axillary Regimental badge Shoulder abduction
Median Pad of index finger Thumb abduction
Ulnar Radial little finger Finger abduction
Radial Dorsal 1st web Wrist extension
18. Nerve conduction velocity
• Performed along with EMG
• Measures sensory nerve action potentials
• Distinguishes preganglionic from postganglionic
• SNAPs are preserved in lesions proximal to dorsal root
ganglia
19. Nerve action potentials
• Often intraoperative
• Tests nerve across a lesion
• IF NAP positive across a lesion
- Preserved axons or significant regeneration
• Can detect reinnervation months before EMG
- NAP negative – neuropraxic lesion
- NAP positive – axonotmetic lesion
27. Take home message
• BPI’s causes catastrophic injuries and affect the
quality of life
• Early recognition of the mechanism and level of
injury is important to establish early treatment
• Thorough clinical examination is essential to
obtain an accurate diagnosis
• Recent advances in surgical techniques have led
to improved outcomes of patients
28. References
• Sakellariou, V. I., Badilas, N. K., Mazis, G. A., Stavropoulos, N. A., Kotoulas, H. K., Kyriakopoulos, S., …
Sofianos, I. P. (2014). Brachial Plexus Injuries in Adults: Evaluation and Diagnostic Approach. ISRN
Orthopedics, 2014, 1–9. doi:10.1155/2014/726103
• Ferraresi, S., Garozzo, D., Griffini, C., Resmini, B., Manara, O., Foresti, C., … Ghislandi, I. (1994).
Brachial plexus injuries Guidelines for management: Our experience. The Italian Journal of Neurological
Sciences, 15(6), 273–284. doi:10.1007/bf02339237
• BMJ Best Practice, Brachial Plexus injuries
• Nagano, A. (1998). Treatment of brachial plexus injury*. Journal of Orthopaedic Science, 3(1), 71–80.
doi:10.1007/s007760050024
• Sakellariou, V. I., Badilas, N. K., Stavropoulos, N. A., Mazis, G., Kotoulas, H. K., Kyriakopoulos, S., …
Sofianos, I. P. (2014). Treatment Options for Brachial Plexus Injuries. ISRN Orthopedics, 2014, 1–10.
doi:10.1155/2014/314137
• Park, H. R., Lee, G. S., Kim, I. S., & Chang, J.-C. (2017). Brachial Plexus Injury in Adults. The Nerve,
3(1), 1–11. doi:10.21129/nerve.2017.3.1.1
Editor's Notes
Severe peripheral nerve injury affecting the upper extremeties, causing functional damage and physical disabilityThe most common cause of adult
BPI is a traffic accident, such as motorcycle accidents. Most
patients are young men between 15 and 25 years of age.
Other traumatic causes include sports injuries, incised wounds,
gunshot wounds, carrying a heavy backpack, and inappropriate
operative positioning. Non-traumatic causes consist of tumors,
irradiation, and congenital abnormalities such as cervical ribs
it is a network of nerves passing through the cervico-axillary canal to reach axilla and innervates brachium (upper arm), antebrachium (forearm) and hand.
The brachial plexus runs within the interscalene triangle bounded by the anterior scalene muscle anteriorly, the middle scalene muscle posteriorly and the superior border of the first rib inferiorly. It traverses the posterior triangle of the neck,
formed by the clavicle inferiorly, the trapezius muscle laterally
and the posterior border of sternocleidomastoid muscle medially68).
Then it passes laterally over the first rib and enters
the axilla to supply the upper limb
Brachial plexus is a somatic nerve plexus formed by the union of anterior rami of C5,C6,C7,C8 and T1.
The formation of brachial plexus begins just distal to the scalenus
muscles.
Function:
The brachial plexus is responsible for cutaneous and muscular innervation of the entire upper limb, with two exceptions: the trapezius muscle innervated by the spinal accessory nerve (CN XI) and an area of skin near the axilla innervated by the intercostobrachial nerve.
The brachial plexus is composed by 5 anatomical components:
5 roots, 3 trunks, 6 divisions, 3 cords, and 5 terminal
branches (Fig. 1). Five roots include the anterior branches of
the 4 lowest cervical spinal nerve roots (C5-C8) and the first
thoracic nerve root (T1. Rarely the brachial plexus may be pre/post fixed resulting in a slight variation of origin between c4 to t2, Two pairs of
nerve roots extend from each segment of the spinal cord; ventral
(anterior) and dorsal (posterior) roots. The ventral roots
contain motor fibers exiting the spinal cord. The dorsal roots
convey sensory fibers that came from the dorsal root ganglion
and enter the spinal cord. The ventral and dorsal roots get
together beyond the ganglion, and become the spinal nerve.
Dorsal scapular C5- rhomboid , stabilisation of scapula
Long thoracic C5 – Serratus anterior abduction of scapula
Suprascapular – infraspinatus and supraspinatus , abduction of shoulder, expternal rotation of shoulder
Medial C8 and Lateral pectoral c7 – pec major and pec minor, adducts shoulder and stabilizes the scapula
Subscapular c5 – subscapularis and teres major, internal rotation of shoulder
Thoracodorsal c7 – lattismus dorsi , adduction of sjhoulder
Musculocutaneous c5 – biceps brachii and brtachialis – flexion of elbow
Ulnar c8 t1 – fcu, intrinsic muscleds of hanf – flexors of wrist and fingers, abduction of fingers
Median c8 to t1 – pronators of forearm, flexors of wrist and fingers –
Radial c 6 to c 8 – supinator , triceps brachii, extensors of wrist and fgingers,
Axillary c 5 – deltoid and teres minor – abduction of shoulders
Seddon classification[4]
Based on clinical findings with increasing force of trauma. There are 3 degrees of injury from simple stretch/
compression to complete transaction:
• Neurapraxia (first-degree Sunderland) - axon remains intact; includes conduction blocks
• Axonotmesis (second-degree Sunderland)- axon is severed, but endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium are intact
• Neurotmesis (fifth-degree Sunderland).- complete injury.
Sunderland classification[3]
Based on anatomical boundaries within the nerves that are transgressed by increasing force of trauma.
There are 5 degrees of injury from simple stretch/compression to complete transaction:
• First-degree injury: axon remains intact; includes conduction blocks
• Second-degree injury: axon is severed, but endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium are intact
• Third-degree injury: axon and endoneurium damaged leaving fascicular pattern intact
• Fourth-degree injury: axon, endoneurium,
• Fifth-degree injury: complete injury.
Closed trauma is the most common cause of adult prachial plexus injury.Most common mechanism is compression or traction. In traction, nerve may be injured, avulsed or significantly stretched from the roots. Traction related injuries can be a result of violent widening of the scapulohumeral anhle , accompanied by the shoulder dislocations and fractures of the humerus, which causes pressure on the inraclavicular neurovascular bundle above the humeral head and injury of the infraclavicular plexus. Because the axillary artery is located close to the medial m lateral and posterior cord, accompanying rupture of the axillary artery has been reported by up to 50% of infraclavicula rplexus injury
Mechanism of injury
Brachial plexus injury at the level of spinal cord usually produces greater pain than injuries more distant
Injuries nearer to the spinal cord may cause a burning numbness known as paraesthesia or dysaethesia
The patients position and location of the upper limb when the injury occurs is the most important mechanism to understand the mechanism of BPI, Different positions and location of the upper limb will lead to a diffeerent injury mechanism because tension can be applied to various roots. . In this image , if the upper limb is stretched in an elevated position, the greatest tension force will affect the lower roots.
Leffert is a classification based on the mechanism of injury while Milessi classification is based on the level of injury. However, a much simpler method would be to classifiy the injury based on wheter its pre/ post ganglionic and the anatomical location of injury
In preganglionic injuries, there is an avulsion proximal to the dorsal root ganglion, involves CNS which does not regenerate, poor prognosis
lesions suggesting preganglionic injury:
Horner’s syndrome
disruption of sympathetic chain
winged scapula medially
loss of serratus anterior (long thoracic nerve) rhomboids (dorsal scapular nerve) leads to medial winging (inferior border goes medial)
presents with motor deficits (flail arm)
sensory intact
absence of a Tinel sign or tenderness to percussion in the neck
normal histamine test (C8-T1 sympathetic ganglion)
intact triple response (redness, wheal, flare)
elevated hemidiaphragm (phrenic nerve
rhomboid paralysis (dorsal scapular nerve)
supraspinatus/infraspinatus (suprascapular nerve)
latissimus dorsi (thoracodorsal)
evaluation
EMG may show loss of innervation to cervical paraspinals
Horner syndrome is a relatively rare disorder characterized by a constricted pupil (miosis), drooping of the upper eyelid (ptosis), absence of sweating of the face (anhidrosis), and sinking of the eyeball into the bony cavity that protects the eye (enophthalmos). These are the four classic signs of the disorder.
Deformity
Arm: Hangs by the side, it is adducted and medially rotated
Forearm: Extended and pronated
Abduction impossible because of paralysis of deltoid & supraspinatus m/s.
ER impossible because of paralysis of infraspinatus & teres minor m/s.
Active flexion impossible because of paralysis biceps, brachialis & brachioradialis.
Paralysis of supinator m/s causes pronation deformity of forearm.
The deformity is known as "Policeman's tip hand" or "Porter's tip hand".
Muscles paralysed:
Intrinsic muscles of the hand (T1)
Ulnar flexors of the wrist and fingers (C8).
Deformity: (position of the hand): claw hand due to the unopposed action of the long flexors and extensors of the fingers. in a claw hand there is hyperextension at the metacarpophalangeal joints and flexion at the interphalangeal joints.
Disability:
Claw hand
Cutaneous anaesthesia and analgesia in a narrow zone along the ulnar border of the forearm and hand.
Horner's syndrome: ptosis, miosis, anhydrosis, enophthalmos and loss of ciliospinal reflex- may be associated. This is because of injury to sympathetic fibres to the head and neck that leave the spinal cord through nerve T1.
Mechanism of injury , high or low energy,
-Swelling over the shoulder
Palpation
-Tinelsign
+ test: Marked,painfulparaesthesia in the corresponding dermatomes
-Palpate for any tenderness over the Clavicle
A shooting nerve-like pain on taping along the affected nerves (Tinel sign) suggests an injury farther from the spinal cord. Over time, if the location of the Tinel sign moves down the arm toward the hand, it is a sign that the injury is repairing itself.
During the physical examination, assess the arm and shoulder for stability and range of motion
Musculocutaneous c5,c6,c7
Axillary c5 c 6
Median c5c7 lateral c8t1 medial
Ulna c8 t1
Imaging studies :
X-ray of cervical spine :
Fracture of lateral masses of cervical vertebrae are strongly associated with pre-ganglionic injuries.
Chest x-ray :
May show 1st and 2nd rib fracture or an elevated hemidiaphragm, which denotes phrenic nerve paralysis and proximal injury to upper plexus.
Fractures of scapula and clavicle and Humerus may indicate infraclavicular plexus injuries.
chest radiograph
recommended views
PA and lateral
fractures to the first or second ribs suggest damage to the overlying brachial plexus
evidence of old rib fractures can be important in case intercostal nerve is needed for nerve transfer
inspiration and expiration can demonstrate a paralyzed diaphragm (indicates upper nerve root injury)
cervical spine series
recommended views
AP and lateral
transverse process fracture likely indicates a root avulsion
scapular and shoulder series
recommended views
at least AP and axillary (or equivalent)
scapulothoracic dissociation is associated with root avulsion and major vascular injury
clavicle
recommended views
orthogonal views
fracture may indicate brachial plexus injury
Tests muscle at rest and during activity
Fibrillation potential ( denervation changes)
Can help distinguish preganglionic from post ganglionic lesions
Electromyography (EMG)tests muscles at rest and during activity
fibrillation potentials (denervation changes)
as early as 10-14 days following injury in proximal muscles
as late as 3-6 weeks in distal muscles
can help distinguish preganglionic from postganglionic
examine proximally innervated muscles that are innervated by root level motor branches
rhomboids
serratus anterior
cervical paraspinals
Most important use of EMG studies is for serial evaluation of injury to search for signs of re innervation.
A decreased in number of fibrillation potentials and positive sharp potentials typically seen in dennervated muscles regenerating axons have reached the motor end plates.
The appearance of prolonged, polyphasic and low-amp
indicated re-innervation.
Seen several weeks before the onset of voluntary muscle contraction and signify that a further period of observation is in order
Gold standard for defining nerve root injury
Avulsion of nerve roots cause dural sheath to heal with meningocoele
Scan should be done 3- 4 weeks after injury
- Allows blood clot in the injured area to dissipate and meningocoele to form
CT Myelography :
If plexus injury is strongly suspected a myelogram and subsequent CT scan should be obtained 2-3 months after injury.
It may be inaccurate early after the injury because clotted blood may occlude the opening into the pseudomeningocele. A delay of 6-12 weeks is recommended before myelogram is advised.
Advantages:
-detect partial root avulsion
-excellent visualization of bony structures
-no CSF flow artifacts and
-multiplanar reconstruction.
Disadvantages:
- high radiation dose
-poor visualization of lower brachial plexus
due to bony artifacts.
Indication
Suspect injury distal to nerve roots
Can visualise much of the brachial plexus
Findings
Traumatic neuromas and edema
Mass lesions
Pseudomeningocoele
Empty nerve root sleeves
Cord shift away from midline
Nerve conduction velocity (NCV)performed along with EMG
measures sensory nerve action potentials (SNAPs)
distinguishes preganglionic from postganglionic
SNAPs preserved in lesions proximal to dorsal root ganglia
cell body found in dorsal root ganglia
if SNAP normal and patient insensate in ulnar nerve distribution
preganglionic injury to C8 and T1
if SNAP normal and patient insensate in median nerve distribution
preganglionic injury to C5 and C6
Intra operative nerve action potential (NAP) :
This study is performed during surgical exploration of the
plexus, which is usually done 3-4 months after injury.
If a nerve action potential can be recorded.
Substantial number of regenerating axons have traversed the lesion site.
Conversely if an action potential cannot be elicited the abnormal segment is resected because spontaneous recovery is likely to be poor.
NAP is best for evaluating a neuroma in continuity. If an NAP can be transmitted across the area of injury, the patient has 93% chance of useful motor function
will develop in the muscles supplied by that nerve
In the case of closed BPI wounds and when there are no other emergent injuries, surgical exploration and recovery may not take place immediately. Recommendations include
managing pain, and
starting rehabilitation.
AIMS:
to maintain the range of motion of the extremity
to strengthen the remaining functional muscles
to protect the denervated dermatomes, and
to manage pain.
Pain management:
Significant pain is observed in complete palsy especially in root avulsions.
Pain Is excruciating and exhausting for the patient but it can affect the rehabilitation procedure .
NSAIDs and opioid drugs useful during the first stages but do not appear to help with neuropathic pain, which requires careful use of antiepileptic drugs (gabapentin and carbamazepine) or antidepressants such as amitriptyline.
About 30% of patients report significant pain relief with this type of treatment.
In the case of closed BPI wounds and when there are no other emergent injuries, surgical exploration and recovery may not take place immediately. Recommendations include
managing pain, and
starting rehabilitation.
AIMS:
to maintain the range of motion of the extremity
to strengthen the remaining functional muscles
to protect the denervated dermatomes, and
to manage pain.
Pain management:
Significant pain is observed in complete palsy especially in root avulsions.
Pain Is excruciating and exhausting for the patient but it can affect the rehabilitation procedure .
NSAIDs and opioid drugs useful during the first stages but do not appear to help with neuropathic pain, which requires careful use of antiepileptic drugs (gabapentin and carbamazepine) or antidepressants such as amitriptyline.
About 30% of patients report significant pain relief with this type of treatment.
Nerve grafting is the predominant technique for clear cut injuries with a healthy proximal stump and with no axial damage.
The outcome is influenced by
the length of the nerve graft
the presence of scar tissue at the wound site
the number of grafts used
the presence of a healthy proximal stump available for grafting and
the nerve gap to be covered.
The sural nerve, the sensory branch of ulnar nerve, and the medial cutaneous nerve of the forearm are the usual donor nerves.
Generally, use of nerve grafts shorter than
10 cm results in better functional and clinical outcomes compared with longer grafts
This type of procedure is used for preganglionic root injury
The nerve transfer may be extraplexus or intraplexus.
Intraplexus transfer options include intact nerve roots. Other choices include the use of the medial thoracic nerve and inferior medial cord/ulnar nerve.
Oberlin et al. described nerve transfer to the biceps muscle using part of the ulnar nerve for C5-C6 avulsion of the brachial plexus
Extraplexus transfer options include the use of intercostal and spinal accessory nerves. The phrenic nerve and deep motor branches of the cervical plexus (C3-C4) may be used as donor nerves.
In ROOT avulsion of upper plexus in which no proximal neural stump is available for nerve grafting, neurotization between intercostal nerves or FCU motor fascicles of ulnar nerve & musculocutaneous nerve to restore the ELBOW FLEXION may be considered.
NEUROTIZATION of the suprascapular nerve using the spinal accessory nerve and neurotization of the axillary nerve with fascicles of radial nerve innervating the lateral, medial, or long head of triceps can be used to restore SHOULDER ABDUCTION AND EXTERNAL ROTATION
After Brachial plexus repair & regeneration 12 to 18 mths required to determine extent of neural regeneration.
If recovery inadequate Peripheral reconstruction considered
In the absence of spontaneous recovery or when the first surgical procedure does not provide satisfactory outcomes then a second operation may be required.
In such cases there should be specific signs of neurological denervation or no possibility of neurological recovery, or sufficient time should have passed with no functional improvement.
Secondary options include
NOTE: The shoulder should be fused with only 20 degrees of abduction, 30 degrees flexion, and 30 degrees of internal rotation to allow the patient to be independent in his daily life with a mean range of 60 degrees abduction and flexion through the scapulothoracic joint
Tendon transfers are useful in restoring upper extremity function after BPI.
An absolute indication for tendon transfer is upper or lower brachial plexus traumatic injury with only partial paralysis.
Many tendon transfer techniques have been described for treating partial shoulder paralysis.
the most common procedures are the following: 1.Trapezius to deltoid transfer as described by Elhassan et al.
in 2000 to restore abduction of the shoulder 2.Latissimus dorsi transfer as described by L’ Episcopo,
to improve external rotation.
3. Anterior transfer of the posterior branch of the deltoid muscle to restore nonfunctional anterior segment.
The surgical goal is to restore good muscle strength through a range
of elbow motion (30 to 130 degrees).
The most commonly used procedures are as follows:
i)transfer of the common origin of the flexor forearm muscles to a proximal section as described by Steindler (1918) . The Steindler technique may lead to disappointing outcomes such as elbow stiffness or over pronation;
(ii)transfer of latissimus dorsi muscle to the tendon of the biceps brachialis provides great muscle strength, but this muscle is often denervated
(iii)transfer of pectoralis major brachial branch tendon to brachial biceps (Clark technique). A fused shoulder is required for the best postoperative result;
(iv)transfer of triceps tendon to biceps provides good results