This document discusses recognizing, analyzing, and constructing arguments. It begins by explaining that the aim is to help the reader learn to recognize, analyze, and evaluate arguments. It then provides information on identifying issues, recognizing rhetoric versus argumentation, identifying propositions and premises, and diagramming arguments. The document concludes by discussing how to evaluate arguments and construct logical arguments.

1. Chapter 6
Recognizing, Analyzing, And
Constructing Arguments
The aim of this tutorial is to help you learn to
recognize, analyze, and evaluate arguments.
Copyright © 2021 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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How Do Politicians Use Logical Arguments
and Rhetoric in Political Debates?
Joe Raedle/Getty Images

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Arguments and Issues
Arguments help us to analyze issues and to assess
whether positions on issues are reasonable or
unreasonable.
• An issue is an ill-defined complex of problems involving a
controversy or uncertainty.
Identifying an issue requires asking the right questions as
well as good communication skills.

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Brown versus Board of Education (1954)
Bettmann/Corbis
Despite Brown versus Board of Education (1954) African
Americans still don't have the same educational opportunities as
whites.

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Argument Recognition1
Rhetoric is the art of persuasion.
• It is the defense of a particular position usually without adequate
consideration of opposing evidence.
• Rhetoric can be useful once you have come to a reasoned
conclusion and are now trying to convince others of this conclusion.
• The goal of rhetoric is to “win.”
• The purpose of argumentation, in contrast, is to discover the truth.

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Abraham Lincoln
Source: Library of Congress Prints & Photographs
Division [LC-USZ62-13016]
Was Lincoln's decision to stand by his conclusion that slavery
should be illegal a wise one? Are there times when it is best to
back down on an argument rather than risk conflict?

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Rhetorical Standoff
Jeff McCoy/Shutterstock
Anti-abortion and pro-abortion rights demonstrators debating each other at
the Supreme Court on January 23, 2012, the anniversary of the Supreme
Court’s Roe versus Wade decision, which established a women’s right to an
abortion.

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Hot or Not? 1
Is it acceptable to use rhetoric if you’re
sure of your position?

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Argument Recognition2
Arguments are made up of two or more propositions, one
of which, the conclusion, is supported by the other(s), the
premise(s).
• There are two types of arguments.
• Deductive arguments contain a conclusion that necessarily follows
from the premise.
• In inductive arguments, the premises provide support but not
necessarily proof for the conclusion.

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Propositions, Conclusions, and
Premises 1
Propositions are statements that express a complete
thought.
• A proposition can either be true or false.
The conclusion of an argument is the proposition that is
supported or denied on the basis of other propositions or
reasons.
• Also called claims, viewpoints, and positions, it is what the
argument is trying to prove.
• A conclusion can appear anywhere in an argument.

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Propositions, Conclusions, and
Premises 2
Premises are propositions that support or give reasons for
acceptance of the argument.
• Reasoning proceeds from the premises to the conclusion.
• Good premises are based on fact and experience.

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Proposition: The Earth Revolves
around the Sun
Digital Vision/Getty Images

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Types of Premises
There are several types of premises.
• Descriptive premises are based on empirical facts: Scientific
observation and/or sensory experience.
• Prescriptive premises, in contrast, contain value statements.
• Analogical premises take the form of an analogy in which a
comparison is made between two similar events or things.
• Definitional premises contain a definition of a key term for
purposes of precision or clarification.

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Nonarguments: Explanations and
Conditional Statements
• Sometimes we confuse arguments with explanations
and conditional statements.
• An explanation is a statement about why or how
something is the case.
• A conditional statement is an “if…then…” statement
that offers no claim or conclusion.
• Unlike explanations and conditional statements, an
argument tries to prove that something is true.

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Conditional Statement: If 18-Year-Olds Are
Emotionally Mature Enough to Go to War, Then
They Should Be Allowed to Drink Alcohol
Lightroom Photos/Topham/The Image Works

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Breaking down Arguments
Knowing how to diagram and identify parts of an argument
allows us to visualize the entire argument, its propositions,
and the relationship between the premise and conclusion.
Before you can diagram an argument, you must first break
it down into its propositions.
• First, bracket the propositions.
• Second, identify the conclusion.
• Third, identify the premises.

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Bracket the Propositions
Skynesher/Getty Images
[Students who sit in front a classroom generally earn higher grades.
Therefore, [you should move up to the front of the class], since [I know
you want to improve your grade point average].

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Diagramming Arguments Using
Symbols
Diagramming arguments involves the use of specific
symbols to identify the different parts of an argument and
their relationship to each other.
• A circled number is used to indicate a proposition and where it
appears in the argument.
• A broken circle is used to indicate an unstated premise or
conclusion.
• An arrow is used to indicate the relationship between an
independent premise and the conclusion.
• A line is used to connect dependent premises.
• A line with an arrow below it is used to indicate the relationship
between dependent premises and the conclusion.

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Argument with Independent Premises

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Argument with Dependent Premises
1. [The Bible states in Leviticus 20:26, “You should not practice augury or
witchcraft.”]
2. Therefore, [the Harry Potter books are not suitable reading for children,] since
3. [Harry Potter is a wizard] and
4. [wizards practice augury].

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These People Are Burning Harry Potter Books
Based on Their Conclusion That Harry Is a Wizard
and Witchcraft Should Not Be Practiced
Neil Jacobs/Getty Images

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Argument with an Unstated Conclusion
1. Laws that permit public colleges to discriminate against applicants on the
basis of race or sex are unconstitutional.
2. The University of Michigan’s affirmative action policy that awards extra points
on the basis of a person’s race and sex discriminates against white males.
3. Therefore, the University of Michigan’s affirmative action policy is
unconstitutional.

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College Students Fighting for Equality
Alex Wong/Getty Images
College students are divided regarding the morality
and constitutionality of affirmative action in college
admissions.

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Hot or Not? 2
Does knowing how to break down and
diagram arguments serve any practical
purpose in your life?

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Evaluating Arguments
Knowing how to break down and diagram arguments
makes it easier for you to evaluate them.
Five criteria useful for evaluating arguments.
• Clarity.
• Credibility.
• Relevance.
• Completeness.
• Soundness.

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Evaluating Clarity and Credibility
Clarity: Is the argument clear and unambiguous?
Credibility: Are the premises supported by evidence?
• Examine each premise carefully.
• Be alert for assumptions that are passed off as facts.

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Hispanic Housekeeper
Photodisc/Getty Images

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Arguments May Be False
Stockbyte/Getty Images
"Boys become doctors; girls become nurses”
– If one of the premises is false, the premises
do not support the conclusion.

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Evaluating Relevance and
Completeness
Relevance: Are the premises relevant to the conclusion?
• In addition to being true, the premises should provide good reasons
for accepting the conclusion.
Completeness: Are there any unstated premises and
conclusions?
• This is often the case with arguments that are incompletely
researched or have confirmation bias.

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Evaluating Soundness
Soundness: Are the premises true and do they support
the conclusion?
• A sound argument is one in which the premises are true and they
support the conclusion.

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Constructing an Argument
Once you know how to identify, deconstruct, and evaluate
arguments, you are ready to construct your own.
• The following eight steps are a useful guide to help you improve the
quality of your arguments.

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Eight Steps to Better Arguments 1
Begin by stating the issue.
• Try to use neutral language.
Develop a list of premises.
• Remain as objective and open-minded as possible.
Eliminate weak or irrelevant premises.
Establish a conclusion.

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Eight Steps to Better Arguments 2
Organize your argument.
• Clearly state your conclusion, or thesis statement, in the opening
paragraph.
Test your argument using others.
Revise your argument if necessary.
If appropriate, act on your conclusion or solution.

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How to Make Your Argument Stronger
Laurence Mouton/PhotoAlto/PunchStock
Working collaboratively to identify and eliminate weak or
biased premises can help make your argument stronger.

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Hot or Not? 3
Does the two-party system in the United
States discourage the use of logical
argumentation in resolving issues?

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Writing Papers Using Logical
Arguments
Writing effective college papers requires the use of good
structure, both in your argument and in the paper itself.
Use the following approach as a guide:
• Identify the issue.
• Present the premises.
• Present and address counterarguments.
• End the paper with an expanded version of your conclusion.
• Restate the issue and summarize your argument thoroughly.
• Be sure to include references for all facts and evidence used.

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The Dangers of Jumping to a
Conclusion
Judith Boss

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Conclusions
Arguments are useful tools for making real-life decisions.
Skilled critical thinkers employ them to recognize conflict
and avoid or defuse it.
• They also avoid jumping to premature conclusions and only take a
stand after studying an issue from multiple perspectives.

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Perspectives on Same-Sex Marriage
Gabriel Bouys/AFP/Getty Images