Boiling and vaporization and freezing
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Evaporation occurs when a liquid's molecules gain enough energy to transition into a gas phase, which can happen when the liquid is warmed or at room temperature. Boiling happens when a liquid's vapor pressure equals the pressure of the gas above it, meaning lower external pressures cause liquids to boil at lower temperatures. Freezing is the phase change where a liquid turns solid upon cooling below its freezing point, though some substances have different melting and freezing temperatures and can remain liquid at temperatures below the freezing point.
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Change of state
When a solid is heated, the particles gain energy and vibrate faster until they break free from their fixed positions, having enough energy to overcome the attractions between particles. This change from solid to liquid is called melting. Each pure substance has a specific melting/boiling point, which is the temperature at which it changes state while the temperature remains constant. Boiling occurs when the most energetic particles in a liquid escape as a gas, and boiling happens throughout the entire liquid rather than just at the surface like evaporation. Sublimation is when a solid changes directly to a gas without first becoming a liquid.
Evaporation and condensation
Changes in the states of matter can occur through evaporation or condensation. Evaporation is the change of a liquid to a gas state, such as water turning to water vapor, after being heated. Condensation is the opposite change where a gas turns to a liquid state, like water vapor condensing to liquid water again, through the process of cooling.
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This document discusses the different states of matter and changes between states. There are three main states - solid, liquid, and gas. Changes between these states, called phase changes, occur when energy is added to or removed from a substance. Phase changes include melting, freezing, evaporation, condensation, boiling, and sublimation. During these changes, the substance's physical form changes but its chemical identity remains the same.
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Changes of state
The document discusses the processes of melting, boiling, freezing and condensation. It explains that during these state changes, heat is absorbed or released in the form of latent heat, causing the temperature to remain constant. Impurities affect the freezing/melting and boiling points of substances by lowering or raising the temperature at which these state changes occur. Pressure also influences state changes, with higher pressure lowering melting/boiling points.
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Temperature causes matter to change states by increasing or decreasing molecular motion. Water changes from a liquid to gas through evaporation when temperature increases the molecular motion, forming water vapor. Clouds are made of water vapor, which condenses back to a liquid through precipitation when cloud temperatures decrease molecular motion. Thermometers measure temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, Celsius, or Kelvin, with water freezing at 0°C and boiling at 100°C.
Matter (lesson 3) changes of state in matter
Condensation is when a gas turns into a liquid, evaporation is when a liquid turns into a gas, melting is when a solid turns into a liquid, solidification is when a liquid turns into a solid, sublimation is when a solid turns directly into a gas, and deposition is when a gas turns directly into a solid. Physical changes like melting, freezing, evaporating and condensing can be reversed, but chemical changes like rusting or boiling an egg cannot be reversed. When water freezes, it releases heat, and when an ice cube melts, it absorbs heat, meaning changes of state involve heat absorption or release.
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When a solid is heated, the particles gain energy and vibrate faster until they break free from their fixed positions, having enough energy to overcome the attractions between particles. This change from solid to liquid is called melting. Each pure substance has a specific melting/boiling point, which is the temperature at which it changes state while the temperature remains constant. Boiling occurs when the most energetic particles in a liquid escape as a gas, and boiling happens throughout the entire liquid rather than just at the surface like evaporation. Sublimation is when a solid changes directly to a gas without first becoming a liquid.
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Changes in the states of matter can occur through evaporation or condensation. Evaporation is the change of a liquid to a gas state, such as water turning to water vapor, after being heated. Condensation is the opposite change where a gas turns to a liquid state, like water vapor condensing to liquid water again, through the process of cooling.
Change of state
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The document discusses the processes of melting, boiling, freezing and condensation. It explains that during these state changes, heat is absorbed or released in the form of latent heat, causing the temperature to remain constant. Impurities affect the freezing/melting and boiling points of substances by lowering or raising the temperature at which these state changes occur. Pressure also influences state changes, with higher pressure lowering melting/boiling points.
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Temperature causes matter to change states by increasing or decreasing molecular motion. Water changes from a liquid to gas through evaporation when temperature increases the molecular motion, forming water vapor. Clouds are made of water vapor, which condenses back to a liquid through precipitation when cloud temperatures decrease molecular motion. Thermometers measure temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, Celsius, or Kelvin, with water freezing at 0°C and boiling at 100°C.
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Liquids have definite volume and take the shape of their container. They are more dense than gases due to their particles being closer together, but less dense than solids. Liquids can change states through vaporization (becoming a gas) or freezing (becoming a solid). Vaporization occurs through evaporation at the surface of liquids or through boiling where vapor bubbles form throughout the liquid. Freezing happens when a liquid is cooled and particles slow down enough for attractive forces to pull them into a solid, orderly arrangement.
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Particles gain thermal energy as they change from solid to liquid to gas. There are specific temperatures at which phase changes occur: melting point for solid to liquid, freezing point for liquid to solid, boiling point for liquid to gas. Boiling occurs when a liquid changes to a gas below and at its surface, while evaporation only occurs at the surface. Condensation is the reverse process of vaporization, where gas particles lose thermal energy and form a liquid. Sublimation bypasses the liquid state as solid particles directly change to a gas.
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This document describes the different changes of state that can occur when a substance gains or loses energy. It defines melting as a solid changing to a liquid, freezing as a liquid changing to a solid, evaporation as a liquid changing to a gas, boiling as a liquid changing to a gas throughout, condensation as a gas changing to a liquid, and sublimation as a solid changing directly to a gas. For each change of state, it explains what must happen energetically for the change to occur, such as particles overcoming attractions or slowing down particle movement.
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please consider to follow it gives me encouragement only 1 % of viewers are following its free !
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Yousif Jameel, a student at Hawler Medical University's College of Pharmacy, prepared this document on determining the melting point of organic compounds. The document discusses the equipment needed, safety precautions to follow, and factors that influence a substance's melting point such as molecular size, symmetry, and pressure. The purpose is to use melting point to determine purity, identify unknown compounds, and accurately obtain melting points using a Mel-Temp apparatus.
determination of melting point of liquid organic compound
Yousif Jameel, a student at Hawler Medical University's College of Pharmacy, prepared this document on determining the melting point of organic compounds. The document discusses the necessary equipment, safety considerations, factors that influence melting point such as molecular size and symmetry, and how variations in conditions can impact melting point. The purpose is to use melting point to determine purity, identify unknown compounds, and accurately obtain melting points using a Mel-Temp apparatus.
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There are three states of matter - solid, liquid, and gas - and four types of phase changes: melting, freezing, evaporation, and condensation. Phase changes occur when heat is added or removed, causing particles to gain or lose kinetic energy and change their movement and spacing. Melting and evaporation are caused by heat increasing particle energy and movement, while condensation and freezing are caused by cooling, which decreases particle energy and causes them to slow down and contract.
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This document provides instructions on how to determine the melting point of a liquid organic compound. It lists the necessary equipment, describes safety precautions when using the Mel-Temp apparatus, and identifies factors that influence melting point such as molecular size, shape, and purity. The purpose is to use an organic compound's melting point to determine its purity, identify unknown compounds, and accurately obtain melting points using the described apparatus and procedures.
Temperature
The document discusses temperature and how it relates to the kinetic energy and motion of molecules. It defines temperature and explains that it is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules. It discusses different temperature scales including Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin and provides equations to convert between them. It also explains how temperature changes can cause materials to expand and contract as the molecules move faster or slower, taking up more or less space. Specific equations are provided to calculate the linear expansion and volume expansion of materials based on their coefficient of expansion, original length or volume, and temperature change. Examples are included to demonstrate using these equations.
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Thermal expansion occurs when the temperature of an object increases, causing its particles to vibrate with more amplitude and increasing the average distance between particles. There are two types of expansion observed when heating a liquid in a container: apparent expansion, which does not account for expansion of the container, and real expansion, which is the apparent expansion plus the expansion of the container. The rate of real expansion is always slightly higher than the apparent rate. Steam can be classified as wet, dry saturated, or superheated depending on its moisture content and whether it has absorbed its full latent heat. Increasing pressure raises the boiling point and melting point of substances.
Endothermic phase changes
Matter exists in three phases - solid, liquid, and gas. Phase changes from solid to liquid to gas are endothermic processes that require energy. During melting, molecules in a solid gain kinetic energy from increased thermal energy and break free from intermolecular forces, turning the solid into a liquid. The melting point is the specific temperature at which a solid melts into a liquid. During boiling, liquid molecules are vaporized into a gas as thermal energy breaks the liquid bonds, with the boiling point being the temperature at which this phase change occurs without an increase in temperature.
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The document discusses various topics related to states of matter including:
- The three common states of matter are solids, liquids, and gases. Particles in each state are arranged differently and have different properties.
- Matter can change between solid, liquid, and gas states through heating and cooling. This involves absorbing or releasing energy in the form of latent heat.
- Other topics covered include vapor pressure, sublimation, critical points, and phase diagrams. The document provides definitions and examples for understanding different states of matter and changes between them.
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1) Molecules in liquids can slide over and around each other allowing liquids to flow and change shape, while molecules in gases have enough energy to break away from their neighbors allowing gases to expand to fill any container.
2) Pressure results from constant collisions between atoms or molecules, and acts equally in all directions. It keeps car tires inflated by balancing the downward force that supports the vehicle.
3) Intermolecular forces between molecules influence the three phases of matter by pulling molecules together at long ranges but pushing them apart at short ranges, with the balance of these forces and thermal energy determining if a substance is a solid, liquid or gas.
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This document discusses thermal energy and the behavior of gases. It defines thermal energy as the total kinetic energy of particles in an object. As temperature increases, particles move faster and have more kinetic energy. Gases are discussed in terms of pressure, volume, temperature, and their relationships as defined by Boyle's and Charles' Laws. Specifically, Boyle's Law states that pressure and volume are inversely related at a constant temperature, while Charles' Law says volume and temperature are directly proportional at constant pressure.
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Archimedes' Principle states that the buoyant force on an object in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. Boyle's Law explains that the volume of a gas decreases as pressure increases. Charles' Law describes how the volume of a gas increases as temperature rises, such as with balloons or bicycle tires.
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Heat is a form of energy. According to the principle of thermodynamics whenever a physical or chemical transformation occurs heat flow into or leaves the system.
A number of sources of heat are used for industrial scale operations steam and electric power is the chief sources to transfer heat. It is essential to cover steam without any loses to the apparatus in which it is used. The study of heat transfer processes helps in be signing the plant efficiently and economically
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determination of melting point of liquid organic compound
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This short document promotes creating presentations using Haiku Deck, a tool for making slideshows. It encourages the reader to get started making their own Haiku Deck presentation and sharing it on SlideShare. In just one sentence, it pitches the idea of using Haiku Deck to easily create engaging slideshows.
En quran trans (sahih international).sahih
This document contains summaries of the first two chapters (Surahs) of the Quran. Surah Al-Fatiha introduces some of the key themes and beliefs of Islam, such as worshipping Allah, seeking his guidance and avoiding the paths of those who have incurred his anger. Surah Al-Baqarah discusses various topics, including the importance of having faith and doing righteous deeds, warnings against disbelief and corruption, and stories from the history of past prophets such as Adam, Moses and Jesus. It emphasizes having faith in Allah and following the teachings of Muhammad and past prophets.
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SDSS1335+0728: The awakening of a ∼ 106M⊙ black hole⋆
Context. The early-type galaxy SDSS J133519.91+072807.4 (hereafter SDSS1335+0728), which had exhibited no prior optical variations during the preceding two decades, began showing significant nuclear variability in the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) alert stream from December 2019 (as ZTF19acnskyy). This variability behaviour, coupled with the host-galaxy properties, suggests that SDSS1335+0728 hosts a ∼ 106M⊙ black hole (BH) that is currently in the process of ‘turning on’. Aims. We present a multi-wavelength photometric analysis and spectroscopic follow-up performed with the aim of better understanding the origin of the nuclear variations detected in SDSS1335+0728. Methods. We used archival photometry (from WISE, 2MASS, SDSS, GALEX, eROSITA) and spectroscopic data (from SDSS and LAMOST) to study the state of SDSS1335+0728 prior to December 2019, and new observations from Swift, SOAR/Goodman, VLT/X-shooter, and Keck/LRIS taken after its turn-on to characterise its current state. We analysed the variability of SDSS1335+0728 in the X-ray/UV/optical/mid-infrared range, modelled its spectral energy distribution prior to and after December 2019, and studied the evolution of its UV/optical spectra. Results. From our multi-wavelength photometric analysis, we find that: (a) since 2021, the UV flux (from Swift/UVOT observations) is four times brighter than the flux reported by GALEX in 2004; (b) since June 2022, the mid-infrared flux has risen more than two times, and the W1−W2 WISE colour has become redder; and (c) since February 2024, the source has begun showing X-ray emission. From our spectroscopic follow-up, we see that (i) the narrow emission line ratios are now consistent with a more energetic ionising continuum; (ii) broad emission lines are not detected; and (iii) the [OIII] line increased its flux ∼ 3.6 years after the first ZTF alert, which implies a relatively compact narrow-line-emitting region. Conclusions. We conclude that the variations observed in SDSS1335+0728 could be either explained by a ∼ 106M⊙ AGN that is just turning on or by an exotic tidal disruption event (TDE). If the former is true, SDSS1335+0728 is one of the strongest cases of an AGNobserved in the process of activating. If the latter were found to be the case, it would correspond to the longest and faintest TDE ever observed (or another class of still unknown nuclear transient). Future observations of SDSS1335+0728 are crucial to further understand its behaviour. Key words. galaxies: active– accretion, accretion discs– galaxies: individual: SDSS J133519.91+072807.4
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JAMES WEBB STUDY THE MASSIVE BLACK HOLE SEEDS
The pathway(s) to seeding the massive black holes (MBHs) that exist at the heart of galaxies in the present and distant Universe remains an unsolved problem. Here we categorise, describe and quantitatively discuss the formation pathways of both light and heavy seeds. We emphasise that the most recent computational models suggest that rather than a bimodal-like mass spectrum between light and heavy seeds with light at one end and heavy at the other that instead a continuum exists. Light seeds being more ubiquitous and the heavier seeds becoming less and less abundant due the rarer environmental conditions required for their formation. We therefore examine the different mechanisms that give rise to different seed mass spectrums. We show how and why the mechanisms that produce the heaviest seeds are also among the rarest events in the Universe and are hence extremely unlikely to be the seeds for the vast majority of the MBH population. We quantify, within the limits of the current large uncertainties in the seeding processes, the expected number densities of the seed mass spectrum. We argue that light seeds must be at least 103 to 105 times more numerous than heavy seeds to explain the MBH population as a whole. Based on our current understanding of the seed population this makes heavy seeds (Mseed > 103 M⊙) a significantly more likely pathway given that heavy seeds have an abundance pattern than is close to and likely in excess of 10−4 compared to light seeds. Finally, we examine the current state-of-the-art in numerical calculations and recent observations and plot a path forward for near-future advances in both domains.
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Microbial interaction
Microorganisms interacts with each other and can be physically associated with another organisms in a variety of ways.
One organism can be located on the surface of another organism as an ectobiont or located within another organism as endobiont.
Microbial interaction may be positive such as mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism or may be negative such as parasitism, predation or competition
Types of microbial interaction
Positive interaction: mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism
Negative interaction: Ammensalism (antagonism), parasitism, predation, competition
I. Mutualism:
It is defined as the relationship in which each organism in interaction gets benefits from association. It is an obligatory relationship in which mutualist and host are metabolically dependent on each other.
Mutualistic relationship is very specific where one member of association cannot be replaced by another species.
Mutualism require close physical contact between interacting organisms.
Relationship of mutualism allows organisms to exist in habitat that could not occupied by either species alone.
Mutualistic relationship between organisms allows them to act as a single organism.
Examples of mutualism:
i. Lichens:
Lichens are excellent example of mutualism.
They are the association of specific fungi and certain genus of algae. In lichen, fungal partner is called mycobiont and algal partner is called
II. Syntrophism:
It is an association in which the growth of one organism either depends on or improved by the substrate provided by another organism.
In syntrophism both organism in association gets benefits.
Compound A
Utilized by population 1
Compound B
Utilized by population 2
Compound C
utilized by both Population 1+2
Products
In this theoretical example of syntrophism, population 1 is able to utilize and metabolize compound A, forming compound B but cannot metabolize beyond compound B without co-operation of population 2. Population 2is unable to utilize compound A but it can metabolize compound B forming compound C. Then both population 1 and 2 are able to carry out metabolic reaction which leads to formation of end product that neither population could produce alone.
Examples of syntrophism:
i. Methanogenic ecosystem in sludge digester
Methane produced by methanogenic bacteria depends upon interspecies hydrogen transfer by other fermentative bacteria.
Anaerobic fermentative bacteria generate CO2 and H2 utilizing carbohydrates which is then utilized by methanogenic bacteria (Methanobacter) to produce methane.
ii. Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis:
In the minimal media, Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis are able to grow together but not alone.
The synergistic relationship between E. faecalis and L. arobinosus occurs in which E. faecalis require folic acid
Candidate young stellar objects in the S-cluster: Kinematic analysis of a sub...
Context. The observation of several L-band emission sources in the S cluster has led to a rich discussion of their nature. However, a definitive answer to the classification of the dusty objects requires an explanation for the detection of compact Doppler-shifted Brγ emission. The ionized hydrogen in combination with the observation of mid-infrared L-band continuum emission suggests that most of these sources are embedded in a dusty envelope. These embedded sources are part of the S-cluster, and their relationship to the S-stars is still under debate. To date, the question of the origin of these two populations has been vague, although all explanations favor migration processes for the individual cluster members. Aims. This work revisits the S-cluster and its dusty members orbiting the supermassive black hole SgrA* on bound Keplerian orbits from a kinematic perspective. The aim is to explore the Keplerian parameters for patterns that might imply a nonrandom distribution of the sample. Additionally, various analytical aspects are considered to address the nature of the dusty sources. Methods. Based on the photometric analysis, we estimated the individual H−K and K−L colors for the source sample and compared the results to known cluster members. The classification revealed a noticeable contrast between the S-stars and the dusty sources. To fit the flux-density distribution, we utilized the radiative transfer code HYPERION and implemented a young stellar object Class I model. We obtained the position angle from the Keplerian fit results; additionally, we analyzed the distribution of the inclinations and the longitudes of the ascending node. Results. The colors of the dusty sources suggest a stellar nature consistent with the spectral energy distribution in the near and midinfrared domains. Furthermore, the evaporation timescales of dusty and gaseous clumps in the vicinity of SgrA* are much shorter ( 2yr) than the epochs covered by the observations (≈15yr). In addition to the strong evidence for the stellar classification of the D-sources, we also find a clear disk-like pattern following the arrangements of S-stars proposed in the literature. Furthermore, we find a global intrinsic inclination for all dusty sources of 60 ± 20◦, implying a common formation process. Conclusions. The pattern of the dusty sources manifested in the distribution of the position angles, inclinations, and longitudes of the ascending node strongly suggests two different scenarios: the main-sequence stars and the dusty stellar S-cluster sources share a common formation history or migrated with a similar formation channel in the vicinity of SgrA*. Alternatively, the gravitational influence of SgrA* in combination with a massive perturber, such as a putative intermediate mass black hole in the IRS 13 cluster, forces the dusty objects and S-stars to follow a particular orbital arrangement. Key words. stars: black holes– stars: formation– Galaxy: center– galaxies: star formation
Discovery of An Apparent Red, High-Velocity Type Ia Supernova at 𝐳 = 2.9 wi...
We present the JWST discovery of SN 2023adsy, a transient object located in a host galaxy JADES-GS
+
53.13485
−
27.82088
with a host spectroscopic redshift of
2.903
±
0.007
. The transient was identified in deep James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)/NIRCam imaging from the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program. Photometric and spectroscopic followup with NIRCam and NIRSpec, respectively, confirm the redshift and yield UV-NIR light-curve, NIR color, and spectroscopic information all consistent with a Type Ia classification. Despite its classification as a likely SN Ia, SN 2023adsy is both fairly red (
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(
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−
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)
∼
0.9
) despite a host galaxy with low-extinction and has a high Ca II velocity (
19
,
000
±
2
,
000
km/s) compared to the general population of SNe Ia. While these characteristics are consistent with some Ca-rich SNe Ia, particularly SN 2016hnk, SN 2023adsy is intrinsically brighter than the low-
�
Ca-rich population. Although such an object is too red for any low-
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cosmological sample, we apply a fiducial standardization approach to SN 2023adsy and find that the SN 2023adsy luminosity distance measurement is in excellent agreement (
≲
1
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) with
Λ
CDM. Therefore unlike low-
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Ca-rich SNe Ia, SN 2023adsy is standardizable and gives no indication that SN Ia standardized luminosities change significantly with redshift. A larger sample of distant SNe Ia is required to determine if SN Ia population characteristics at high-
�
truly diverge from their low-
�
counterparts, and to confirm that standardized luminosities nevertheless remain constant with redshift.
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Evidence of Jet Activity from the Secondary Black Hole in the OJ 287 Binary S...
Evidence of Jet Activity from the Secondary Black Hole in the OJ 287 Binary S...
Quality assurance B.pharm 6th semester BP606T UNIT 5
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Candidate young stellar objects in the S-cluster: Kinematic analysis of a sub...
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Boiling and vaporization and freezing
- 1. EVAPORATION, BOILING AND FREEZING Done By Pratham Chhabhaiya
- 2. A GRAPH SHOWING STATES OF WATER 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Ice Water Remains Constant Water Vapour Steam
- 3. EVAPORATION Evaporation takes place when a liquid is above its boiling point As shown in this picture a heated iron rod is inserted in water at the temperature above 100℃ the water has started boiling and evaporating. Sometimes a liquid can be sitting in one place (maybe a puddle) and its molecules will become a gas. That's the process called evaporation. It can happen when liquids are cold or when they are warm. It happens more often with warmer liquids. You probably remember that when matter has a higher temperature, the molecules have a higher energy. When the energy in specific molecules reaches a certain level, they can have a phase change. Evaporation is all about the energy in individual molecules, not about the average energy of a system. The average energy can be low and the evaporation still continues.
- 4. BOILING A liquid boils at a temperature at which its vapor pressure is equal to the pressure of the gas above it. The lower the pressure of a gas above a liquid, the lower the temperature at which the liquid will boil.
- 5. FREEZING Freezing, or solidification, is a phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point. For most substances, the melting and freezing points are the same temperature; however, certain substances possess differing solid– liquid transition temperatures. For example, agar displays a hysteresis in its melting and freezing temperatures. It melts at 85 °C (185 °F) and solidifies from 31 °C to 40 °C (89.6 °F to 104 °F)..
- 6. Thank you for seeing this presentation