This document discusses body fluids and their composition and movement within the body. It covers the following key points:
- The body maintains fluid balance through intake of water and electrolytes and output through urine, sweat, and feces. Total daily water intake is around 2,500ml while output is also around 2,500ml.
- Body fluids are contained within two main compartments - intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). ICF makes up around 28 liters and ECF makes up around 14 liters. ECF is further divided into interstitial fluid and plasma.
- Movement of fluid between compartments is determined by osmotic forces and hydrostatic pressures across semiper
The document discusses body water and fluid compartments. It describes that total body water is about 42L in healthy adults. Water is contained within two main fluid compartments - intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid. Extracellular fluid is further divided into plasma and interstitial fluid. Various indicator dilution methods are used to measure the volumes of these fluid compartments. Fluid movement between compartments is regulated to maintain osmotic equilibrium and water balance in the body. Disruptions can lead to edema, an excess accumulation of fluid in tissues.
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This document provides an overview of fluid and electrolyte management in surgical patients. It discusses total body water and its division into fluid compartments. Key points include:
- Total body water is approximately 50-60% of total body weight and is divided into plasma, interstitial fluid, and intracellular fluid compartments.
- The extracellular compartment contains sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate while the intracellular compartment contains potassium, phosphate, and sulfate.
- Fluid shifts between compartments are regulated by hormones like aldosterone and vasopressin to maintain fluid balance. Surgical procedures and illness can disrupt this balance.
- Dehydration is the loss of water and electrolytes, most commonly from the
The document summarizes body fluids and blood. It discusses that the body is composed of solids and fluids, with fluids making up over two thirds. Water forms most of the fluid part. Body fluid compartments include intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid, and transcellular fluid. Extracellular fluid further divides into interstitial fluid, plasma, and fluids in bones, connective tissues, and other areas. Blood composition includes formed elements like red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets suspended in plasma. The document also discusses hematopoiesis, red blood cell functions and variations, white blood cell types and counts, and physiological variations in blood components.
This document summarizes the composition and distribution of body fluids in the human body. It discusses that the normal adult body is composed of 60% water, 7% minerals, 18% protein, and 15% fat. Total body water is distributed between intracellular fluid (ICF, 40% of body weight) and extracellular fluid (ECF, 20% of body weight). ECF is further divided into plasma (5% of body weight), interstitial fluid (15% of body weight), and transcellular fluid (1.5% of body weight). The document also describes the ionic composition of different body fluids and units used to measure solute concentration like moles, equivalents, and osmoles. It introduces
This document discusses fluid therapy, including the basics of body fluids, fluid composition, water balance, and fluid regulation. It covers the types of fluids used in therapy including crystalloids like lactated Ringer's solution and normal saline, as well as colloids. The routes of fluid administration and indications for fluid therapy are described. Signs of dehydration and fluid overload are also summarized. Calculations for fluid resuscitation based on weight and dehydration percentage are demonstrated through examples.
The document discusses body water and fluid compartments. It describes that total body water is about 42L in healthy adults. Water is contained within two main fluid compartments - intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid. Extracellular fluid is further divided into plasma and interstitial fluid. Various indicator dilution methods are used to measure the volumes of these fluid compartments. Fluid movement between compartments is regulated to maintain osmotic equilibrium and water balance in the body. Disruptions can lead to edema, an excess accumulation of fluid in tissues.
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
This document provides an overview of fluid and electrolyte management in surgical patients. It discusses total body water and its division into fluid compartments. Key points include:
- Total body water is approximately 50-60% of total body weight and is divided into plasma, interstitial fluid, and intracellular fluid compartments.
- The extracellular compartment contains sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate while the intracellular compartment contains potassium, phosphate, and sulfate.
- Fluid shifts between compartments are regulated by hormones like aldosterone and vasopressin to maintain fluid balance. Surgical procedures and illness can disrupt this balance.
- Dehydration is the loss of water and electrolytes, most commonly from the
The document summarizes body fluids and blood. It discusses that the body is composed of solids and fluids, with fluids making up over two thirds. Water forms most of the fluid part. Body fluid compartments include intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid, and transcellular fluid. Extracellular fluid further divides into interstitial fluid, plasma, and fluids in bones, connective tissues, and other areas. Blood composition includes formed elements like red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets suspended in plasma. The document also discusses hematopoiesis, red blood cell functions and variations, white blood cell types and counts, and physiological variations in blood components.
This document summarizes the composition and distribution of body fluids in the human body. It discusses that the normal adult body is composed of 60% water, 7% minerals, 18% protein, and 15% fat. Total body water is distributed between intracellular fluid (ICF, 40% of body weight) and extracellular fluid (ECF, 20% of body weight). ECF is further divided into plasma (5% of body weight), interstitial fluid (15% of body weight), and transcellular fluid (1.5% of body weight). The document also describes the ionic composition of different body fluids and units used to measure solute concentration like moles, equivalents, and osmoles. It introduces
This document discusses fluid therapy, including the basics of body fluids, fluid composition, water balance, and fluid regulation. It covers the types of fluids used in therapy including crystalloids like lactated Ringer's solution and normal saline, as well as colloids. The routes of fluid administration and indications for fluid therapy are described. Signs of dehydration and fluid overload are also summarized. Calculations for fluid resuscitation based on weight and dehydration percentage are demonstrated through examples.
The document provides information about cardiovascular physiology and the components of blood. It discusses the heart, blood vessels, and blood that make up the cardiovascular system. It describes the functions of blood including transportation of gases, nutrients, wastes, and hormones. The components of blood are explained as plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Erythropoiesis, the formation of red blood cells, is outlined in detail including the stages from stem cells to reticulocytes to mature red blood cells.
The document discusses homeostasis of body fluids. It describes how the body maintains fluid balance through balancing fluid intake and output. Key body fluid compartments include intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid such as interstitial fluid and plasma. Homeostasis relies on mechanisms like osmosis, diffusion and active transport of fluids between compartments. The kidneys play an important role in regulating fluid balance and electrolyte levels through urine output. Imbalances can lead to conditions like edema, with dehydration classified as isotonic, hypertonic or hypotonic based on electrolyte disturbances.
The document discusses renal physiology and the urinary system. It contains the following key points:
1. The urinary system includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys contain nephrons which filter blood to form urine.
2. The kidneys regulate fluid volume, electrolyte and acid-base balance, and remove waste. Nephrons contain a renal corpuscle for filtration and a tubule for reabsorption and secretion.
3. The proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs the majority of filtered sodium, water, and other electrolytes using active transport mechanisms like sodium-glucose co-transport. This maintains electrolyte and fluid balance
FINAL BODY FLUIDS AND ELECTROLYTE PRESENTATION (1).pptxkavita nicholas
This document provides information about body fluids and electrolytes. It describes that body water makes up approximately 50-60% of total body weight and is located intracellularly and extracellularly. Electrolytes help maintain fluid balance and osmotic equilibrium between compartments. The extracellular fluid contains plasma, interstitial fluid, and transcellular fluids like cerebrospinal fluid. Sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium and magnesium are important electrolytes that aid various physiological functions and maintain fluid homeostasis.
This document discusses fluid therapy in companion animals. It covers the body's fluid compartments and how fluids move between compartments. Factors like water content, electrolyte balances, and fluid losses are examined. Shock, its causes and treatment with fluid therapy are addressed. Methods to assess dehydration like clinical history, exam, and lab tests are summarized. The document also reviews choosing the appropriate fluid based on the type of fluid loss and compares uses of colloids, crystalloids, and blood products.
The document provides an overview of body fluids and electrolytes. It discusses the different fluid compartments, including intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, and transcellular fluids. It describes the composition of each fluid compartment and the factors that influence fluid balance, such as age, sex, dehydration, and fluid infusion. The document also covers fluid exchange across capillary walls, the development of edema, and the mechanisms involved in maintaining water homeostasis and normal fluid balance.
The document discusses fluid, electrolytes, and acid-base balance in the human body. It describes how fluid is distributed between two compartments - intracellular and extracellular space. The extracellular space contains interstitial fluid, intravascular fluid, and transcellular fluid. Key organs that regulate fluid and electrolyte balance include the kidneys, lungs, heart, adrenal glands, and pituitary gland. Imbalances can cause fluid volume deficit, characterized by weight loss, decreased skin turgor, and other clinical signs.
This document discusses hematocrit, which is the fraction of blood volume comprised of formed elements like red blood cells. It is determined by centrifuging an anticoagulated blood sample in a calibrated tube. A higher hematocrit indicates increased blood viscosity and load on the heart, while a lower hematocrit may suggest anemia. Normal hematocrit ranges are 40-54% for males and 38-46% for females. Measuring hematocrit is an important screening tool for evaluating hematological conditions.
This document provides an introduction to the cardiovascular module, including its structure, assessments, and recommended textbooks. It then discusses why organisms need a cardiovascular system to transport oxygen, nutrients, waste products, and more throughout the body via blood. Key components of the cardiovascular system are described, including the heart, blood vessels, and capillaries, where gas exchange occurs through diffusion. Factors like surface area, resistance, and concentration gradients that influence diffusion are also covered. The document explains how blood flow is regulated to meet metabolic demand and supply different tissues.
This document provides information about body fluids and blood. It discusses topics like total body water and its relationship to age, sex, and fat. It describes the different body fluid compartments, their osmotic compositions, and the principles of water movement between compartments. It also covers the general properties and functions of blood, erythropoiesis, leucopoiesis, blood groups, and hemostasis.
The document discusses fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base disturbances. It covers fluid compartments and regulation, electrolyte composition and balance, acid-base balance mechanisms, causes and assessment of dehydration, and management of dehydration through oral rehydration and intravenous fluids. Common electrolyte imbalances like hyponatremia and causes of hyponatremia are also mentioned.
Description of body fluids compartments.pptxCharlesSsekawu
The document describes the different body fluid compartments and their composition. It discusses:
- The two main fluid compartments - intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). ECF includes interstitial fluid, plasma, and other specialized fluids.
- The major ions found in ICF (K+) and ECF (Na+, Cl-, HCO3-), and their important functions.
- Other specialized body fluids like lymph, milk, cerebrospinal fluid, amniotic fluid, aqueous humor, sweat, and tears - their composition and roles.
- The lymphatic system which drains interstitial fluid back to blood and transports fats and immune cells.
The document discusses disorders of water and electrolyte metabolism. It covers:
- Water and electrolytes (ions like sodium, potassium, calcium) are important components of body fluids that help regulate cell function and metabolism.
- Homeostasis (balance) of water volume, electrolyte levels, and fluid distribution between intracellular and extracellular compartments is vital. Disorders can result from diseases that cause vomiting, diarrhea, or other fluid/electrolyte imbalances.
- Understanding the pathogenesis (cause) and changes in water and electrolyte disturbances is important for clinical work in treating disorders. Factors like antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone help regulate fluid balance and electrolyte levels in the body
This document discusses hematology and the components and functions of blood. It describes how hematology is the study of blood and the circulatory system. The key components of blood are plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Plasma acts as a transport medium and contains proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, wastes, gases, and hormones. Red blood cells transport oxygen and carbon dioxide through their hemoglobin content. White blood cells provide protection through immune functions. Platelets contribute to hemostasis and blood clotting. Tests like complete blood count, hematocrit, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate are used to analyze blood and diagnose conditions.
The document discusses body fluids and electrolyte balance in the human body. It explains that the chemical reactions of life take place in aqueous solutions inside and outside of cells. Water and solutes move between compartments through osmosis and filtration. Electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and chloride are important for nerve function, hormone secretion, and fluid balance. The kidneys play a key role in regulating water balance and electrolyte levels in the blood.
1. The document discusses the composition and functions of blood. It describes the formed elements of blood including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes.
2. The stages of erythropoiesis and factors affecting erythropoiesis are explained. Erythropoiesis occurs within the red bone marrow in adults and produces red blood cells through stem cell differentiation.
3. The functions of plasma and plasma proteins are outlined. Plasma proteins such as albumin help maintain colloid osmotic pressure and transport substances through the blood.
The document discusses the regulation of body water and electrolyte balance through various homeostatic mechanisms. It describes how water comprises 60-70% of total body weight in humans and is obtained through drinking water, beverages, cooked foods, and metabolic water. Key factors that regulate fluid balance include thirst, antidiuretic hormone, the renin-angiotensin system, aldosterone, atrial natriuretic peptide, and kinins. The kidneys play an important role in excreting excess water or electrolytes to maintain balance. Imbalances can disrupt the normal fluid distribution between intracellular and extracellular compartments.
body fluids123654987236598741236598.pptxarjunnagar13
Body fluids are present both inside and outside of cells. Intracellular fluid (ICF) makes up about 60% of total body water and is located inside cells. Extracellular fluid (ECF) is located outside cells and includes interstitial fluid, plasma, and other fluids like cerebrospinal fluid. ICF contains high levels of potassium and phosphate, while ECF contains high levels of sodium and chloride. Blood is composed of plasma and formed elements like red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Plasma is 55% of blood and contains water, proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, gases, and waste products. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body via hemoglobin and have a biconcave shape
Serotonin (5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter that has diverse functions including mood, cognition, and physiological processes. It is found widely in nature, especially in the gastrointestinal tract, blood platelets, and central nervous system. 5-HT is synthesized from tryptophan and stored in neurons and chromaffin cells. It is released and acts on several receptor subtypes to exert its effects before being reuptaken or metabolized. Key 5-HT receptors include 5-HT1 receptors which inhibit adenylate cyclase, and 5-HT2 receptors which stimulate phospholipase C. Agonists and antagonists that target these receptors are used to treat various conditions like anxiety, migraine, and hypertension.
The document provides information about cardiovascular physiology and the components of blood. It discusses the heart, blood vessels, and blood that make up the cardiovascular system. It describes the functions of blood including transportation of gases, nutrients, wastes, and hormones. The components of blood are explained as plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Erythropoiesis, the formation of red blood cells, is outlined in detail including the stages from stem cells to reticulocytes to mature red blood cells.
The document discusses homeostasis of body fluids. It describes how the body maintains fluid balance through balancing fluid intake and output. Key body fluid compartments include intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid such as interstitial fluid and plasma. Homeostasis relies on mechanisms like osmosis, diffusion and active transport of fluids between compartments. The kidneys play an important role in regulating fluid balance and electrolyte levels through urine output. Imbalances can lead to conditions like edema, with dehydration classified as isotonic, hypertonic or hypotonic based on electrolyte disturbances.
The document discusses renal physiology and the urinary system. It contains the following key points:
1. The urinary system includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys contain nephrons which filter blood to form urine.
2. The kidneys regulate fluid volume, electrolyte and acid-base balance, and remove waste. Nephrons contain a renal corpuscle for filtration and a tubule for reabsorption and secretion.
3. The proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs the majority of filtered sodium, water, and other electrolytes using active transport mechanisms like sodium-glucose co-transport. This maintains electrolyte and fluid balance
FINAL BODY FLUIDS AND ELECTROLYTE PRESENTATION (1).pptxkavita nicholas
This document provides information about body fluids and electrolytes. It describes that body water makes up approximately 50-60% of total body weight and is located intracellularly and extracellularly. Electrolytes help maintain fluid balance and osmotic equilibrium between compartments. The extracellular fluid contains plasma, interstitial fluid, and transcellular fluids like cerebrospinal fluid. Sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium and magnesium are important electrolytes that aid various physiological functions and maintain fluid homeostasis.
This document discusses fluid therapy in companion animals. It covers the body's fluid compartments and how fluids move between compartments. Factors like water content, electrolyte balances, and fluid losses are examined. Shock, its causes and treatment with fluid therapy are addressed. Methods to assess dehydration like clinical history, exam, and lab tests are summarized. The document also reviews choosing the appropriate fluid based on the type of fluid loss and compares uses of colloids, crystalloids, and blood products.
The document provides an overview of body fluids and electrolytes. It discusses the different fluid compartments, including intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, and transcellular fluids. It describes the composition of each fluid compartment and the factors that influence fluid balance, such as age, sex, dehydration, and fluid infusion. The document also covers fluid exchange across capillary walls, the development of edema, and the mechanisms involved in maintaining water homeostasis and normal fluid balance.
The document discusses fluid, electrolytes, and acid-base balance in the human body. It describes how fluid is distributed between two compartments - intracellular and extracellular space. The extracellular space contains interstitial fluid, intravascular fluid, and transcellular fluid. Key organs that regulate fluid and electrolyte balance include the kidneys, lungs, heart, adrenal glands, and pituitary gland. Imbalances can cause fluid volume deficit, characterized by weight loss, decreased skin turgor, and other clinical signs.
This document discusses hematocrit, which is the fraction of blood volume comprised of formed elements like red blood cells. It is determined by centrifuging an anticoagulated blood sample in a calibrated tube. A higher hematocrit indicates increased blood viscosity and load on the heart, while a lower hematocrit may suggest anemia. Normal hematocrit ranges are 40-54% for males and 38-46% for females. Measuring hematocrit is an important screening tool for evaluating hematological conditions.
This document provides an introduction to the cardiovascular module, including its structure, assessments, and recommended textbooks. It then discusses why organisms need a cardiovascular system to transport oxygen, nutrients, waste products, and more throughout the body via blood. Key components of the cardiovascular system are described, including the heart, blood vessels, and capillaries, where gas exchange occurs through diffusion. Factors like surface area, resistance, and concentration gradients that influence diffusion are also covered. The document explains how blood flow is regulated to meet metabolic demand and supply different tissues.
This document provides information about body fluids and blood. It discusses topics like total body water and its relationship to age, sex, and fat. It describes the different body fluid compartments, their osmotic compositions, and the principles of water movement between compartments. It also covers the general properties and functions of blood, erythropoiesis, leucopoiesis, blood groups, and hemostasis.
The document discusses fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base disturbances. It covers fluid compartments and regulation, electrolyte composition and balance, acid-base balance mechanisms, causes and assessment of dehydration, and management of dehydration through oral rehydration and intravenous fluids. Common electrolyte imbalances like hyponatremia and causes of hyponatremia are also mentioned.
Description of body fluids compartments.pptxCharlesSsekawu
The document describes the different body fluid compartments and their composition. It discusses:
- The two main fluid compartments - intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). ECF includes interstitial fluid, plasma, and other specialized fluids.
- The major ions found in ICF (K+) and ECF (Na+, Cl-, HCO3-), and their important functions.
- Other specialized body fluids like lymph, milk, cerebrospinal fluid, amniotic fluid, aqueous humor, sweat, and tears - their composition and roles.
- The lymphatic system which drains interstitial fluid back to blood and transports fats and immune cells.
The document discusses disorders of water and electrolyte metabolism. It covers:
- Water and electrolytes (ions like sodium, potassium, calcium) are important components of body fluids that help regulate cell function and metabolism.
- Homeostasis (balance) of water volume, electrolyte levels, and fluid distribution between intracellular and extracellular compartments is vital. Disorders can result from diseases that cause vomiting, diarrhea, or other fluid/electrolyte imbalances.
- Understanding the pathogenesis (cause) and changes in water and electrolyte disturbances is important for clinical work in treating disorders. Factors like antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone help regulate fluid balance and electrolyte levels in the body
This document discusses hematology and the components and functions of blood. It describes how hematology is the study of blood and the circulatory system. The key components of blood are plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Plasma acts as a transport medium and contains proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, wastes, gases, and hormones. Red blood cells transport oxygen and carbon dioxide through their hemoglobin content. White blood cells provide protection through immune functions. Platelets contribute to hemostasis and blood clotting. Tests like complete blood count, hematocrit, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate are used to analyze blood and diagnose conditions.
The document discusses body fluids and electrolyte balance in the human body. It explains that the chemical reactions of life take place in aqueous solutions inside and outside of cells. Water and solutes move between compartments through osmosis and filtration. Electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and chloride are important for nerve function, hormone secretion, and fluid balance. The kidneys play a key role in regulating water balance and electrolyte levels in the blood.
1. The document discusses the composition and functions of blood. It describes the formed elements of blood including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes.
2. The stages of erythropoiesis and factors affecting erythropoiesis are explained. Erythropoiesis occurs within the red bone marrow in adults and produces red blood cells through stem cell differentiation.
3. The functions of plasma and plasma proteins are outlined. Plasma proteins such as albumin help maintain colloid osmotic pressure and transport substances through the blood.
The document discusses the regulation of body water and electrolyte balance through various homeostatic mechanisms. It describes how water comprises 60-70% of total body weight in humans and is obtained through drinking water, beverages, cooked foods, and metabolic water. Key factors that regulate fluid balance include thirst, antidiuretic hormone, the renin-angiotensin system, aldosterone, atrial natriuretic peptide, and kinins. The kidneys play an important role in excreting excess water or electrolytes to maintain balance. Imbalances can disrupt the normal fluid distribution between intracellular and extracellular compartments.
body fluids123654987236598741236598.pptxarjunnagar13
Body fluids are present both inside and outside of cells. Intracellular fluid (ICF) makes up about 60% of total body water and is located inside cells. Extracellular fluid (ECF) is located outside cells and includes interstitial fluid, plasma, and other fluids like cerebrospinal fluid. ICF contains high levels of potassium and phosphate, while ECF contains high levels of sodium and chloride. Blood is composed of plasma and formed elements like red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Plasma is 55% of blood and contains water, proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, gases, and waste products. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body via hemoglobin and have a biconcave shape
Serotonin (5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter that has diverse functions including mood, cognition, and physiological processes. It is found widely in nature, especially in the gastrointestinal tract, blood platelets, and central nervous system. 5-HT is synthesized from tryptophan and stored in neurons and chromaffin cells. It is released and acts on several receptor subtypes to exert its effects before being reuptaken or metabolized. Key 5-HT receptors include 5-HT1 receptors which inhibit adenylate cyclase, and 5-HT2 receptors which stimulate phospholipase C. Agonists and antagonists that target these receptors are used to treat various conditions like anxiety, migraine, and hypertension.
Eicosanoids mwisho.. For bettr understanding.pptxPharmTecM
The document discusses eicosanoids, which are signaling molecules derived from arachidonic acid that play roles in various physiological processes. There are three main types of eicosanoids: prostanoids, leukotrienes, and lipoxins. Prostanoids like prostaglandins and thromboxanes are derived from arachidonic acid via the cyclooxygenase pathway. Leukotrienes promote inflammation while lipoxins help resolve it. Eicosanoids act via specific receptors and are synthesized via cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzymes acting on arachidonic acid. They are metabolized in the kidneys, lungs, and liver and play important roles in processes like
The document discusses acetylcholine (ACh), the first neurotransmitter discovered. ACh is synthesized in the presynaptic part of neurons from choline and acetyl-CoA. It is stored in vesicles and released into the synaptic cleft upon neuronal stimulation. In the cleft, ACh binds to cholinergic receptors on the postsynaptic membrane before being degraded by acetylcholinesterase. ACh acts as a neurotransmitter in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, including at neuromuscular junctions, autonomic ganglia, and various organs. The document outlines the synthesis, storage, release, mechanisms of action, and degradation of ACh. It also discusses cholinergic drugs that can act as
This document summarizes infectious diseases and microorganisms. It defines infectious diseases and categorizes infectious agents such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and helminths. It describes how microorganisms cause disease by direct cell death, toxin production, or inducing immune responses. It also outlines different patterns of inflammatory response to infection like suppurative, mononuclear, cytopathic-proliferative, necrotizing, and chronic inflammation. Various transmission routes and examples of diseases caused by different infectious categories are provided. Special tests for diagnosing infectious agents like gram stain, acid-fast stain, and culture techniques are also mentioned.
This document provides an overview of stereochemistry and stereoisomers. It begins by defining stereochemistry and noting that it refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule. It then discusses Louis Pasteur's 1848 discovery of chirality and enantiomers through his experiments with tartaric acid crystals. The document defines key terms like chiral, achiral, enantiomers, and diastereomers. It explains the different types of stereoisomers including those arising from chiral centers and geometric isomers like cis-trans. The document emphasizes that stereoisomers can have different physical and chemical properties despite having the same molecular formula.
This document discusses the Enterobacteriaceae family of bacteria, including Escherichia coli. It notes that Enterobacteriaceae are a large family of gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the intestines of humans and animals. E. coli is described as a facultative anaerobic bacterium that is usually harmless but can cause infections under certain conditions. There are five main pathogenic strains of E. coli that can cause diseases like diarrhea, urinary tract infections, and sepsis. Biochemical tests and culture media are used to identify and differentiate Enterobacteriaceae bacteria.
Streptococci are Gram-positive cocci that occur in pairs or chains and are classified based on hemolysis, Lancefield grouping, and antigenic differences. Key pathogenic species include:
S. pyogenes (Group A), which causes pharyngitis, scarlet fever, impetigo and other skin infections, necrotizing fasciitis, and post-streptococcal sequelae.
S. agalactiae (Group B) colonizes the genital tract and can cause neonatal sepsis and meningitis.
S. pneumoniae is a common colonizer that causes pneumonia, meningitis, sinusitis and otitis media.
Vir
This document provides information on Staphylococcus including its morphology, classification, virulence factors, diseases caused, and laboratory identification. Staphylococcus are gram positive cocci that occur in grape-like clusters and produce catalase. Major species include S. aureus, S. epidermidis, and S. saprophyticus. S. aureus is commonly pathogenic while others are opportunistic. Diseases range from skin infections to toxinoses. Identification involves culture, microscopy, and biochemical tests like coagulase and mannitol fermentation. Treatment often requires antibiotics like vancomycin due to antibiotic resistance.
Hybridization involves the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals that give molecules their shape and bonding properties. There are several types of hybridization depending on the orbitals involved, including sp3, sp2, and sp hybridization. Sp3 hybridization involves one s and three p orbitals mixing to form four sp3 hybrid orbitals arranged tetrahedrally as seen in methane. Sp2 hybridization is the mixing of one s and two p orbitals to yield three sp2 hybrid orbitals in a trigonal planar arrangement as in ethylene. Sp hybridization mixes one s and one p orbital to produce two linear sp hybrid orbitals as observed in acetylene. Hybridization explains molecular geometry and
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls involuntary body functions through two divisions - the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic division activates the fight or flight response through neurotransmitters like norepinephrine. The parasympathetic division conserves energy and supports rest/digest functions through acetylcholine. Both systems have two-neuron pathways and differ in anatomy, neurotransmitters, and target organ effects. The ANS maintains homeostasis through balanced sympathetic/parasympathetic signaling to various organs.
Presentation1 NEOPLASIA III II YEAR UNDER - Copy_2.pptxPharmTecM
This document provides an overview of neoplasia (new abnormal tissue growths), including definitions, classifications of benign and malignant neoplasms, characteristics of each, and precancerous conditions. It discusses that neoplasms have proliferating parenchymal cells and supportive stroma. Malignant neoplasms are less differentiated, grow more rapidly, are locally invasive, and can metastasize. The molecular basis of cancer involves accumulation of genetic mutations from environmental agents and defects in DNA repair over time.
CELL INJURY,ADAPTATION AND DEATH-2.1.pptxPharmTecM
This document discusses cell injury, adaptation, and death. It begins by introducing cells as the basic units that make up tissues and organs. There are two main types of cells: epithelial and mesenchymal. Diseases occur due to abnormalities at the cellular level. Cell injury can be caused by various stresses and etiologic agents, and cells can respond through adaptation or death. Causes of cell injury include genetic, hypoxic, physical, chemical, microbial, immunologic, nutritional, and iatrogenic factors. Reversible cell injury involves changes like decreased ATP and membrane damage that can be reversed, while irreversible injury leads to cell death through mechanisms like calcium influx and DNA damage. Necrosis, autolysis, and
This document discusses chemical sterilization methods. It defines sterilization, disinfection, and antiseptics. The main modes of action for chemical disinfectants are damaging the cell membrane, denaturing proteins, and modifying functional groups of proteins and nucleic acids. Agents that can damage the cell membrane include surface active disinfectants like cationic, anionic, and amphoteric compounds as well as phenols and phenolic compounds. Agents that can denature proteins include acids, alkalies, and alcohols. Agents that can modify functional groups include heavy metals, oxidizing agents like halogens and hydrogen peroxide, dyes, and alkylating agents like formaldehyde and glutar
PCR is a laboratory technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA. It works by repeatedly heating and cooling a DNA sample to make billions of copies of the target sequence. The DNA polymerase used is Taq polymerase, isolated from a heat-tolerant bacterium, which allows the high temperatures needed to separate the DNA strands during each PCR cycle. Primers are used to determine the region to be amplified by binding to the edges of the target sequence on opposite strands.
This document provides information about cytokines. Some key points:
- Cytokines are small secreted proteins that regulate immune cell communication and function. They stimulate immune cell movement and interactions.
- Cytokines can have autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine effects. They exhibit properties like pleiotropy, redundancy, synergy, and antagonism.
- Major classes of cytokines include lymphokines, monokines, chemokines, and interleukins. They have various roles like attracting immune cells, activating macrophages, and stimulating antibody production.
- Cytokines act by binding specific receptors on target cells and altering gene expression. They have high affinity for receptors and can function at pic
This document discusses nucleic acids and their structure. It notes that there are two main types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. DNA is found primarily in the nucleus, while RNA is found throughout the cell. Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides, which contain a phosphate group, a pentose sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose), and a nitrogenous base. The bases are either purines (adenine or guanine) or pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, or uracil). DNA has a double helix structure proposed by Watson and Crick in 1953. RNA plays important roles in protein synthesis through messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA.
This document provides information about nucleic acids and their structure. It discusses that nucleic acids are polymers made up of nucleotides that store and transmit genetic information. There are two main types of nucleic acids - DNA and RNA. A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA), and a phosphate group. DNA forms a double-stranded helical structure with complementary base pairing between adenine and thymine and cytosine and guanine. RNA is typically single-stranded. The document also discusses nucleic acid function and provides examples.
The male reproductive system consists of internal organs (testes, epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate and penis) and external genitals (scrotum). The testes produce sperm and hormones. Sperm travel through ducts and are mixed with fluids from accessory glands to form semen, which is ejaculated through the urethra. The female reproductive system includes ovaries, uterus, uterine tubes, vagina and external genitals. The ovaries contain eggs and produce hormones. The uterus provides nourishment and environment for fetal development. During ovulation, an egg is released from an ovary and may become fertilized in the uterine tubes.
HISTO. MALE&FEMALE GENITALS FINAL- DR G. TOWO.pptxPharmTecM
The male genital system is composed of the testes, genital ducts, accessory glands, and penis. The testes produce sperm and hormones. The genital ducts and accessory glands secrete fluids that transport sperm and provide nutrients. Sperm and secretions make up semen. In the testes, sperm are produced in seminiferous tubules through spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis. Sertoli cells support this process. Sperm then travel through rete testis, epididymis, and ductus deferens to the urethra, aided by contractions. Accessory glands including seminal vesicles and prostate add secretions to semen. The penis contains erectile
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptxTina Purnat
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Osteoporosis - Definition , Evaluation and Management .pdfJim Jacob Roy
Osteoporosis is an increasing cause of morbidity among the elderly.
In this document , a brief outline of osteoporosis is given , including the risk factors of osteoporosis fractures , the indications for testing bone mineral density and the management of osteoporosis
One health condition that is becoming more common day by day is diabetes.
According to research conducted by the National Family Health Survey of India, diabetic cases show a projection which might increase to 10.4% by 2030.
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2. Outline
• Fluid in take and output
• Body fluid compartments
• Measurement of body fluid compartments
• Composition of body fluid compartment
• Movement of fluid in compartment
3. Introduction
• Maintenance of relatively constant and stable composition
of the body fluid is essential for homeostasis
• Failure lead to rise
– Many common and important problems in clinical medicine
4. Fluid Intake and Output
• In steady state
• Exchange of fluid and solute occur with
– The external environment and
– Within the different compartments
• Fluid intake is variable hence must be carefully matched
with output
5. Daily in take of water
• Two major sources of water in the body
– Ingestion (liquids or water in food)
• Add to body fluid total of 2200ml/day
– Metabolism(oxidation of carbohydrates)
• Adding 300mls/day
– Total water intake is 2500mls/day
• Variable between different people and the same person
– Depends on climate, habit and level of physical activity
6. Daily loss of body water
• Insensible water loss -evaporation from the respiratory
and diffusion from the skin
– Account for 800ml/day(respiratory-400ml-400ml)
• Fluid loss through sweating -100mls/day
– Variable depending on the
– Physical activity and environmental temperature
– In hot weather or heavy exercise
• 1 to 2 lts/hour
7. Daily loss of body water
• Water loss in feces
– Normally 100mls/day
• Increase in severe diarrhea
• Water loss by the kidney
– Remaining water loss occur in urine excreted by kidney
• Normally 1500mls
– Vary low as 0.5Lt/day and high as 20lts/day in excessive fluid in
take
• Total 2500mls/day
8. Body fluid compartments
• Total body fluid distributed
between two main compartment
– Intracellular fluid compartment
• Fluid inside the cells
– Extracellular fluid compartment
• Interstitial fluid
• Blood plasma
• Transcellular fluid(synovial, peritoneal,
pericardial, intraocular and CSF)
9. Total body water
• In 70kg adult man
– Total body water is 60% of body weight or about 42 liters
– Depends on age, gender and degree of obesity( amount of fat)
• In women total body water average about 50% of the
body weight due to more percent in fat than men
• In premature and newborn total body water ranges from
70% to 75% of body weight
10. Total body water
• There is increase of the average body weight in many
countries
• Currently average body weight for men older than 20
years in the united state is estimated
• Approximately 86.4 kg in men and 74.1 kg in women
• Need for adjustment when considering body fluid
compartments in most people
11. INTRACELLULAR FLUID COMPARTMENT
• 28 liters of the 42 liters are in side the 100 trillion cell
• Constitute
– 40% of total body weight(70 kg)
– 2/3 of total body water(60% of body water)
• The fluid of each cell
– contains its individual mixture of different constituents
– concentrations of these substances are similar from one cell to
another and similar composition in different
animals(microorganism to humans)
12. INTRACELLULAR FLUID COMPARTMENT
• For this reason, the
intracellular fluid of all the
different cells together is
considered to be one large
fluid compartment
13. EXTRACELLULAR FLUID COMPARTMENT
• All fluid out side the cell collectively
called Extra cellular fluid
• 20% of total body weight ( 14 liters)
• Interstitial fluid
– > ¾ of ECF (11 liters)
• Plasma
– ¼ of ECF (3 liters)
– Noncellular part of blood
14. EXTRACELLULAR FLUID COMPARTMENT
• Exchange substances with the interstitial fluid through
pores of capillary membrane
• Highly permeable to all solutes than protein
• ECF are constantly mixing
– Plasma and interstitial fluids have about the same composition
except for protein(higher in plasma)
15. Source : guyton
and hall ed 13 pg
306
Intake-2200mils
Metabilism-300
Kidiney-1500mils
Lungs-400mils
Skin-400mils
Sweat-100mils
Feces-100mils
16. Blood volume
• Consists of
– ECF (plasma) and ICF(RBCs)
• Separate fluid compartment
– Contained in a chamber of its own, the circulatory system
• 7% of total body weight (5 liters)
• 60% plasma and 40% RBCs
• Vary in different people depends on
– Age ,gender, weight and other factors
17. Blood volume
• Hematocrit (packed RBCs)
– Determined by centrifuging blood in hematocrit tube until cells
are packed to the bottom of the tube
– 3% to 4% of plasma is entrapped among cells
– Hematocrit is 96% of the packed RBCs
– In severe anaemia hematocrit decrease
– In polycythemia hematocrit increase
18. Composition of ECF
• Plasma and interstitial are separated by highly permeable
membrane their ionic composition are similar
• Protein less permeable , plasma has higher concentration
and small amount of protein leaked into interstitial space
• For practical purpose
– The concentration of ions in the interstitial fluid and in the
plasma is considered to be about equal.
19. Composition of ECF
• ECF contain larger amount of
– Sodium and chloride
• Reasonably amount of
– bicarbonate
• Small quantities of
– Potassium,calcium,magnesium,
phosphate and organic ions
20. Composition of ICF
• Intracellular contain
• Larger amount of
– Potassium, phosphate and protein
• Moderate of
– Magnesium and sulfate ions
• Small amount of
– Sodium,chloride almost no calcium
23. Measurement of Body Fluid
• The volume of a fluid compartment in the body can be
measured by placing an indicator substance in the
compartment
• Allowing it to disperse evenly throughout the
compartment’s fluid, and then
• Analyzing the extent to which the substance becomes
diluted
24.
25. Measurement count….
• Dilution principle
• Based on conservation of mass principle, which means
that the total mass of a substance after dispersion in the
fluid compartment will be the same as the total mass
injected into the compartment.
26. Measurement count….
• A small amount of dye or other
substance contained in the
syringe is injected into a
chamber and
• The substance is allowed to
disperse throughout the
chamber until it becomes mixed
in equal concentrations in all
areas
27. Measurement count….
• If none of the substance leaks out of the compartment
• The total mass of substance in the compartment (Volume
B × Concentration B) will equal the total mass of the
substance injected (VolumeA × Concentration A).
28. Measurement count….
• For example, if 1 milliliter of a solution containing10 mg/ml
of dye is dispersed into chamber B and the final
concentration in the chamber is 0.01 mg/ml of fluid, the
unknown volume of the chamber can be calculated as
follows:
– Volume of a dye = 1milliliter,
– concentration of dye before dilution =10mg/mil
– Concentration after dilution(dispersed) =0.01 mg/ml
31. Measurement count….
• Total body water
– Radioactive water used to measure
• Tritium 3H2O or Heavy water (deuterium 2H2O) and antipyrine
• Calculated using the dilution principle
• Extra Cellular Fluid
– Estimated using any substance that disperse plasma and
interstitial but do not permeate the cell membrane
– They include radioactive sodium, radioactive chloride,
radioactive iothalamate, thiosulfate ion, and inulin.
32. Measurement count….
• Intra Cellular Volume
– Can not be measured directly
– Is calculated as
• Intracellular volume=total body water-Extra Cellular Volume
• Plasma Volume
– Substance does not penetrate the capillary membrane
– Serum albumin labeled with radioactive iodine(131 I- Albumin)
dye bind avidly to plasma protein(Evans blue dye-T-1824)
33. Measurement count….
• Interstitial fluid volume
– Can not be measured directly
– Calculated as
• Interstitial fluid volume=ECF Volume-Plasma Volume
• Blood Volume
– If plasma volume is measured and hematocrit is known
– Blood volume can be calculated using the equation
34. Measurement count….
• For example, if plasma volume is 3 liters and hematocrit
• is 0.40, total blood volume would be calculated as
35. Properties of indicator substance
• It must
– Be non toxic
– Achieve rapid and even distribution throughout the
compartment
– Not enter any other compartment
– Not be metabolized or synthesized
– Not be excreted
– Be easy to measure
– Not interfere with body fluid distribution
36.
37. Movement of fluid between plasma and ISF
• Extracellular fluid distributed between the plasma and
interstitial spaces
• Determined mainly by the balance of
– Hydrostatic pressure
– Colloid osmotic forces
• across the capillary membranes.
38. Movement of fluid between plasma and ISF
• Determined by the four starling forces
• Capillary pressure (Pc) tends to force
fluid outward through the capillary
membrane
• Interstitial fluid pressure(Pif) tends to
force fluid inward through the capillary
membrane when Pif is positive but
outward when Pif is negative.
39. Movement of fluid between plasma and ISF
• The capillary plasma colloid
osmotic pressure (Πp) tends to
cause osmosis of fluid inward
through the capillary membrane.
• The interstitial fluid colloid
osmotic pressure (Πif), tends to
cause osmosis of fluid outward
through the capillary membrane.
40. Movement of fluid between plasma and ISF
• If the sum of these forces—the net filtration pressure—is
positive, there will be a net fluid filtration across the
capillaries.
• If the sum of the Starling forces is negative, there will be a
net fluid absorption from the interstitial spaces into the
capillaries
• The net filtration pressure (NFP) is calculated as
41. Fluid Exchange Between ICF and ECF
• Distribution of fluid between ICF and ECF is determined
by osmotic effect of smaller solutes
– Sodium ion, chloride ion and other electrolytes
• Membrane is highly permeable to water and relatively
impermeable(selective permeable) to ions
• Water move across the membrane rapidly to maintain
isotonic concentration between the ICF and ECF
42. Osmosis and Osmotic pressure
• Osmosis is the movement (diffusion) of pure solvent
(water) from a solution of low solute concentration to
solution of high solute concentration
• Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure which needs
to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of its
pure solvent across a semipermeable membrane or
• Is the measure of the tendency of a solution to take in
pure solvent by osmosis
43. Osmosis and Osmotic pressure
• Membrane relatively permeable to
solutes and highly permeable to
water
• Whenever there is high
concentration of solute on one of
the cell membrane water diffuse
across the membrane towards the
side of high concentration until
water concentration between the
two sides becomes equal
44. Osmosis and Osmotic pressure
• If sodium chloride is added to the
extracellular fluid
– water rapidly diffuses from the cells
through the cell membranes into the
extracellular fluid until the water
concentration on both sides of the
membrane becomes equal
– Cause Cells to shrink
ICF
ECF
capillary
Selectivelypermeable
cell membrane
[NaCl]
H2O
45. Osmosis and Osmotic pressure
• if sodium chloride is removed from
the extracellular fluid
– water diffuses from the extracellular
fluid through the cell membranes and
into the cells.
– Cause Cells to swelling
ICF
ECF
Selectivelypermeable
cell membrane
[NaCl]
H2O
46. Osmolarity of the body fluids
• Osmolarity referrers to the number of solute particles per
litter of a solution
• 80% of total osmolarity of ISF and plasma due to Na+ &
Cl-
• Half of osmolarity of ICF is due to K+
• Total osmolarity in each of the three compartment is
300mOmol/L
47. Osmotic equilibrium between ECF and ICF
• Large osmotic pressures can develop across the cell
membrane with relatively
• small changes in the conc of solutes in the ECF
• 1mOsm/L conc gradient of an impermeant solute
• About 19.3 mmHg of osmotic pressure is exerted across
the cell membrane
48. Osmotic equilibrium between ECF and ICF
• If the cell membrane is exposed to pure water and
– the osmolarity of ICF= 282 mOsm/L,
• The osmotic pressure that can develop across the cell
membrane =282*19.3=5442
• If ICF and ECF are not in osmotic equilibrium
• Larger force can develop that can move water into the cell
50. Isotonic,Hypotonic and Hypertonic solution
• If a cell is placed in isotonic solution of impermeant
solutes having an osmolarity of 282 mOsm/L,
– the cells will not shrink or swell
– because the water conc in the ICF and ECF is equal
• the solutes cannot enter or leave the cell. .
• Examples
– 0.9 percent solution of sodium chloride or a
– 5 percent glucose solution.
51. Isotonic,Hypotonic and Hypertonic solution
• If a cell is placed into a hypotonic solution that has a lower
concentration of impermeant solutes (<282 mOsm/L)
– water will diffuse into the cell, causing it to swell
• water will diffuse into the cell, diluting the ICF while also
concentrating the ECF until both solutions have about the
same osmolarity.
• Solutions of sodium chloride with a concentration of less
than 0.9 percent are hypotonic and cause cells to swell.
52. Isotonic,Hypotonic and Hypertonic solution
• If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution having a higher
concentration of impermeant solutes,
• water will flow out of the cell into the ECF, concentrating
the ICF and diluting the ECF.
• The cell will shrink until the two concentrations become
equal.
• Sodium chloride solutions of greater than 0.9 percent are
hypertonic.
54. EFFECT OF ADDING SALINE SOLUTION TO ECF
• If isotonic saline is added to the ECF compartment
– No change in osmolarity
– no osmosis occurs through the cell membranes.
– Increase in extracellular fluid volume
• The sodium and chloride largely remain in the
extracellular fluid because the cell membrane behaves as
though it were virtually impermeable to the sodium
chloride.
55. EFFECT OF ADDING SALINE SOLUTION TO ECF
• If a hypertonic solution is added to the ECF,
– the extracellular osmolarity increases and
– causes osmosis of water out of the cells into the extracellular
compartment to achieve osmotic equilibrium
• Almost all the added NaCl remains in the ECF
• The net effect is an increase in extracellular volume a
decrease in intracellular volume, and a rise in osmolarity
in both compartments.
56. EFFECT OF ADDING SALINE SOLUTION TO ECF
• If a hypotonic solution is added to the extracellular fluid,
– the osmolarity decreases
– water diffuses into the cells until the intracellular and
extracellular compartments have the same osmolarity
• Both the intracellular and the extracellular volumes are
increased by the addition of hypotonic fluid, although the
intracellular volume increases to a greater extent