How does Ablution Protect Us from Different Infections Diseases?fahadzubairi
Because of the continuous development of medical science, many discoveries have been made over the recent years. Interestingly, many of these breakthroughs had already been revealed in the Qur’an and established in the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) more than 1,400 years ago. As a result many non-Muslims are realizing that the teachings of Islam are the unequivocal truth.
Sayed Inseram Ali
Madinah Munuwara, Saudi Arabia
October, 2000
How does Ablution Protect Us from Different Infections Diseases?fahadzubairi
Because of the continuous development of medical science, many discoveries have been made over the recent years. Interestingly, many of these breakthroughs had already been revealed in the Qur’an and established in the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) more than 1,400 years ago. As a result many non-Muslims are realizing that the teachings of Islam are the unequivocal truth.
Sayed Inseram Ali
Madinah Munuwara, Saudi Arabia
October, 2000
Types of Normal flora
Association between human and normal flora .
Characteristics of normal flora
Tissue specificity
Specific aadherence
Biofilm formation
Normal flora of skin
Normal flora of oral cavity
Normal flora of conjunctiva
Normal flora of respiratory tract
Normal flora of gastro intestinal tract
Normal flora of urogenital tract
Beneficial effect of normal flora
Harmful effect of normal flora
Disease caused by normal flora
Are you tired of dealing with pesky fungal infections that refuse to go away?
Well, look no further!
In this guide, we will walk you through the most effective and natural remedies to cure fungal infections on your skin.
Say goodbye to the itchiness, redness, and discomfort – and hello to healthy, glowing skin!
So, let's dive right in and discover the secrets to naturally healing those stubborn fungal infections.
Nematodes are invertebrate roundworms that inhabit marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments. They comprise the phylum Nematoda (or Nemata) which includes parasites of plants and of animals, including humans, as well as species that feed on bacteria, fungi, algae, and on other nematodes. Four out of every five multicellular animals on the planet are nematodes (Platt, 1994). Cobb (1914) calculated that if the nematodes resident in a single acre of soil near San Antonio, Texas, USA, were to proceed in head-to-tail procession to Washington D.C., some 2000 miles away, the first nematode would reach Washington before the rear of the procession left San Antonio!
Ghost Worms in the Sky
Lyrics: Kathy Merrifield
Vocals: Pointless Sisters
The majority of nematodes are microscopic, averaging less than a millimeter in length, but some of the animal parasites are quite large and readily visible to the naked eye. The animal and plant parasites are of direct importance in agriculture, the environment, and in human health; however, most nematodes in the environment are not parasites. Nematodes that feed on other organisms are important participants in the cycling of minerals and nutrients in the ecosystem that is fundamental to other biological activity. Some of these nematodes may have major roles in decomposition, including biodegradation of toxic compounds. In fact, the incidence of certain nematode species is sometimes used as an indicator of environmental quality. Insect-parasitic nematodes can be of importance in regulating insect populations, and are being used in the biological control of insect pests.
The developmental biology of one nematode species, Caenorhabditis elegans, is better characterized than that of any other multicellular organism. C. elegans is studied as a model system in molecular and developmental biology, and is providing insights into many other areas of biology and medicine.
Normal flora is the term used to describe the various bacteria and fungi that are permanent residents of certain
body sites, especially the skin, oropharynx, colon, and
vagina (Tables 6–1 and 6–2). Viruses and parasites (protozoa
and helminths), which are the other major groups of
microorganisms, are usually not considered members of
the normal flora, although they can be present in asymptomatic individuals. The normal flora organisms are often
referred to as commensals. Commensals are organisms
that derive benefit from another host but do not damage
that host. The term human microbiome is often used to
describe the normal flora.
The members of the normal flora play a role both in the
maintenance of health and in the causation of disease in
three significant ways:
(1) They can cause disease, especially in immunocompromised and debilitated individuals. Although these
organisms are nonpathogens in their usual anatomic location, they can be pathogens in other parts of the body.
(2) They constitute a protective host defense mechanism.
The nonpathogenic resident bacteria occupy attachment
sites on the skin and mucosa that can interfere with colonization by pathogenic bacteria. The ability of members of the
normal flora to limit the growth of pathogens is called colonization resistance. If the normal flora is suppressed, pathogens may grow and cause disease. For example, antibiotics
can reduce the normal colonic flora that allows Clostridium
difficile, which is resistant to the antibiotics, to overgrow and
cause pseudomembranous colitis.
(3) They may serve a nutritional function. The intestinal bacteria produce several B vitamins and vitamin K.
Poorly nourished people who are treated with oral antibiotics can have vitamin deficiencies as a result of the reduction in the normal flora. However, since germ-free animals
are well-nourished, the normal flora is not essential for
proper nutrition.
THE HUMAN MICROBIOME
The human microbiome is the term used to describe the
thousands of microbes (“microbiota”) located on the skin,
on mucosal surfaces, and within the lumen of the
TABLE 6–2 Medically Important Members of the Normal Flora
Location Important Organisms1 Less Important Organisms2
Skin Staphylococcus epidermidis Staphylococcus aureus, Corynebacterium (diphtheroids), various streptococci,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, anaerobes (e.g., Propionibacterium), yeasts (e.g.,
Candida albicans)
Nose S. aureus3 S. epidermidis, Corynebacterium (diphtheroids), various streptococci
Mouth Viridans streptococci Various streptococci, Eikenella corrodens
Dental plaque Streptococcus mutans Prevotella intermedia, Porphyromonas gingivalis
Gingival crevices Various anaerobes (e.g.,
Bacteroides, Fusobacterium,
streptococci, Actinomyces)
Throat Viridans streptococci Various streptococci (including Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus
pneumoniae), Neisseria species, Haemophilus influenzae, S. epidermidis
Colon Bacteroides fragilis, Escherichia
The human microbiome is the aggregate of all microbiota that reside on or within human tissues and biofluids along with the corresponding anatomical sites in which they reside, including the skin, mammary glands, placenta, seminal fluid, uterus, ovarian follicles, lung, saliva, oral mucosa, conjunctiva, biliary tract, etc
this is the full explanation of class 8 NCERT sci micoorganism chapter of biology section if you have any queries you can leave a comment i will completely try to reply. hope you like it. & understand it clearly .there are some activities you can try which can make your concept more clear;)
Types of Normal flora
Association between human and normal flora .
Characteristics of normal flora
Tissue specificity
Specific aadherence
Biofilm formation
Normal flora of skin
Normal flora of oral cavity
Normal flora of conjunctiva
Normal flora of respiratory tract
Normal flora of gastro intestinal tract
Normal flora of urogenital tract
Beneficial effect of normal flora
Harmful effect of normal flora
Disease caused by normal flora
Are you tired of dealing with pesky fungal infections that refuse to go away?
Well, look no further!
In this guide, we will walk you through the most effective and natural remedies to cure fungal infections on your skin.
Say goodbye to the itchiness, redness, and discomfort – and hello to healthy, glowing skin!
So, let's dive right in and discover the secrets to naturally healing those stubborn fungal infections.
Nematodes are invertebrate roundworms that inhabit marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments. They comprise the phylum Nematoda (or Nemata) which includes parasites of plants and of animals, including humans, as well as species that feed on bacteria, fungi, algae, and on other nematodes. Four out of every five multicellular animals on the planet are nematodes (Platt, 1994). Cobb (1914) calculated that if the nematodes resident in a single acre of soil near San Antonio, Texas, USA, were to proceed in head-to-tail procession to Washington D.C., some 2000 miles away, the first nematode would reach Washington before the rear of the procession left San Antonio!
Ghost Worms in the Sky
Lyrics: Kathy Merrifield
Vocals: Pointless Sisters
The majority of nematodes are microscopic, averaging less than a millimeter in length, but some of the animal parasites are quite large and readily visible to the naked eye. The animal and plant parasites are of direct importance in agriculture, the environment, and in human health; however, most nematodes in the environment are not parasites. Nematodes that feed on other organisms are important participants in the cycling of minerals and nutrients in the ecosystem that is fundamental to other biological activity. Some of these nematodes may have major roles in decomposition, including biodegradation of toxic compounds. In fact, the incidence of certain nematode species is sometimes used as an indicator of environmental quality. Insect-parasitic nematodes can be of importance in regulating insect populations, and are being used in the biological control of insect pests.
The developmental biology of one nematode species, Caenorhabditis elegans, is better characterized than that of any other multicellular organism. C. elegans is studied as a model system in molecular and developmental biology, and is providing insights into many other areas of biology and medicine.
Normal flora is the term used to describe the various bacteria and fungi that are permanent residents of certain
body sites, especially the skin, oropharynx, colon, and
vagina (Tables 6–1 and 6–2). Viruses and parasites (protozoa
and helminths), which are the other major groups of
microorganisms, are usually not considered members of
the normal flora, although they can be present in asymptomatic individuals. The normal flora organisms are often
referred to as commensals. Commensals are organisms
that derive benefit from another host but do not damage
that host. The term human microbiome is often used to
describe the normal flora.
The members of the normal flora play a role both in the
maintenance of health and in the causation of disease in
three significant ways:
(1) They can cause disease, especially in immunocompromised and debilitated individuals. Although these
organisms are nonpathogens in their usual anatomic location, they can be pathogens in other parts of the body.
(2) They constitute a protective host defense mechanism.
The nonpathogenic resident bacteria occupy attachment
sites on the skin and mucosa that can interfere with colonization by pathogenic bacteria. The ability of members of the
normal flora to limit the growth of pathogens is called colonization resistance. If the normal flora is suppressed, pathogens may grow and cause disease. For example, antibiotics
can reduce the normal colonic flora that allows Clostridium
difficile, which is resistant to the antibiotics, to overgrow and
cause pseudomembranous colitis.
(3) They may serve a nutritional function. The intestinal bacteria produce several B vitamins and vitamin K.
Poorly nourished people who are treated with oral antibiotics can have vitamin deficiencies as a result of the reduction in the normal flora. However, since germ-free animals
are well-nourished, the normal flora is not essential for
proper nutrition.
THE HUMAN MICROBIOME
The human microbiome is the term used to describe the
thousands of microbes (“microbiota”) located on the skin,
on mucosal surfaces, and within the lumen of the
TABLE 6–2 Medically Important Members of the Normal Flora
Location Important Organisms1 Less Important Organisms2
Skin Staphylococcus epidermidis Staphylococcus aureus, Corynebacterium (diphtheroids), various streptococci,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, anaerobes (e.g., Propionibacterium), yeasts (e.g.,
Candida albicans)
Nose S. aureus3 S. epidermidis, Corynebacterium (diphtheroids), various streptococci
Mouth Viridans streptococci Various streptococci, Eikenella corrodens
Dental plaque Streptococcus mutans Prevotella intermedia, Porphyromonas gingivalis
Gingival crevices Various anaerobes (e.g.,
Bacteroides, Fusobacterium,
streptococci, Actinomyces)
Throat Viridans streptococci Various streptococci (including Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus
pneumoniae), Neisseria species, Haemophilus influenzae, S. epidermidis
Colon Bacteroides fragilis, Escherichia
The human microbiome is the aggregate of all microbiota that reside on or within human tissues and biofluids along with the corresponding anatomical sites in which they reside, including the skin, mammary glands, placenta, seminal fluid, uterus, ovarian follicles, lung, saliva, oral mucosa, conjunctiva, biliary tract, etc
this is the full explanation of class 8 NCERT sci micoorganism chapter of biology section if you have any queries you can leave a comment i will completely try to reply. hope you like it. & understand it clearly .there are some activities you can try which can make your concept more clear;)
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An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
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A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
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1. BODIES
DEFENCE
MECHANISM
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda, BNYS., MD Yoga (Clinical)
HOD, Department of Philosophy of Nature Cure
SDM College of Naturopathy & Yogic Sciences, Ujire - 574240
1
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
2. • Natural Immunity
• Phylogenetically older: Present in all
Multicellular Organisms
• Use Proteins Encoded in the Germline
(Elements an Individual is born with:
Standard Equipment-Hard-Wired.
Non Specific Immunity
The body's defense mechanisms are divided into two categories.
Non-specific mechanisms and Specific mechanisms.
2
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
3. • Preformed: Rapid-Available on Short
Notice
• No Memory:Not Enhanced by Prior
Exposure:
• Broad Specificity
• Dependent on species, strain, sex.
Non Specific Immunity
3
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
6. Non Specific v/s Specific
Immunity
Innate/Natural/ Nonspecific
– present from birth
– operates against any
substance
– not enhanced by prior
exposure
Acquired/Adaptive/Specific
– After Birth
– tailored to individual
pathogens
– enhanced by prior
exposure
6
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
7. In non-specific mechanisms have the basic reaction of any kind infections
This mechanism consists of four types of defensive barriers:
1. Anatomic barriers (skin, Mucous membranes)
2. Physiological barriers (temperature, pH, strain)
3. Cellular Barriers (endocytosis and phagocytosis)
4. Inflammatory Barriers (blood vessel dilation, increased
permeability of capillaries in tissue)
Non Specific Immunity
7
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
8. Anatomic Barriers
• External/First line of defenses
• Epithelial Barrier
– Skin
– Mucous membranes
• Conjunctivae, GI, resp, urogenital tracts
• secretions (saliva, tears, urine, mucus)
–wash/trap/inhibit growth
• cilia
8
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
10. •The skin is tough, dry, salty, oily, rich in fatty acids and urea, low in
nutrients (lots of dead, empty cells) & thick.
•The sweat glands secrete a mixture of salt, & fatty acids that inhibit
many microbes.
•It also is home for a host of NORMAL FLORA organisms that are
ANTAGONISTIC to potential pathogens.
•Also, the normal flora scarf up potential nutrients on the skin surface.
•We are taught by our mothers from an early age to keep our skin clean,
usually to forestall a serious antisocial ODOR PROBLEM.
•However, the real benefit of this training is that it serves to PROTECT US
from potential pathogens.
10
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
11. •The skin contains glands known as sebaceous glands associated with the hair
follicles and are most numerous on the scalp, the face, the middle
of the back and around the genitalia.
•They produce a substance known as sebum which comprises triglyceride,
waxes, paraffins and cholesterol.
•The main function of the sebum is to waterproof the skin but it is also
thought to have an anti-bacterial action.
•When intact, the skin is virtually impermeable to micro-organisms, and also
protects from chemicals (weak acids, alkalis etc.) and most gases -
although same gases developed for use in chemical warfare can be
absorbed through the skin.
11
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
12. •The integument gives some protection from physical trauma, for instance
from some forms of particulate radiation such as alpha rays and, to a
lesser extent, from beta rays. beta rays can only penetrate a few
millimetres thus protecting the underlying organs from their
potentially harmful effects.
•In addition the skin is protected from the harmful effects of ultra-
violet radiation by the production of melanin within it.
12
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
13. •On each square centimetre of skin there may be up to 3 million
micro-organisms.
•The skin does not provide a very hospitable environment for bacteria
unless they have become adapted through evolution to live
there.
•The micro-organisms tend to live in the deeper layers of the stratum
corneum near to their food source.
•The application of strong deodorants, and the use of strong soaps
that alter the skin pH from acid to alkaline upset the fine
balance that exists between our parasites and us.
•These tend to kill or inhibit the normal flora, leaving the area open to
potential colonisation by pathogens.
13
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
14. •Arms and legs have the fewest micro-organisms (only one thousand to ten
thousand per square centimetre, whereas on the forehead there may
be as many as one million per sq. cm. and between the toes up to a
thousand million per sq. cm.
•Micro-organisms thrive in moist conditions, and so the axillae (armpits) and
groin provide favourable areas for their growth.
•A waterproof plaster applied to a cut on the forearm for one or two days
causes an increase in the resident population and washing and
bathing both increase the numbers of bacteria released from the
skin for up to 10 hours.
• Heat and moisture cause the break-up of large colonies, so more organisms
tend to be shed.
14
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
15. •Consider these steps to improve skin immunity:
•Vegetables and fruits are loaded with anti-oxidants which deal with free
radicals. So make sure that you include 3-4 portions of nutritious
fresh vegetables at each meal..
•Protect your skin from external threats and prevent excess moisture loss
•When skin immunity is weakened, it is more prone to allergy/rash. So
replenish the protective layer of skin by applying the right skin
products and following a skin care regime.
•Keeping the tummy fit and bowel clean helps a lot in avoiding skin allergies.
•Sunscreens help a lot in delaying photoaging which further help in boosting
skin immunity and keep skin younger and wrinkle-free.
15
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
16. •Use a mild soap or a face wash to clean your skin.
•Pamper your skin occasionally with facials and massages. But take care to
go light on the cosmetics and chemicals
•Regular use of scrubs helps to remove dead cells from your skin.
•Use of herbs like aloe vera and neem helps to cleanse the skin.
•Use steam to cleanse your face once a week
•Drink 8-10 glasses of water daily.
•Ensure that you get enough sleep; at least 6-8 hours daily and on a regular
basis.
•Go for walks whenever possible. This will ensure you receive plenty of
beneficial oxygen needed to cleanse your system.
16
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
17. The mucous membranes (or mucosae; singular mucosa) are linings
of mostly endodermal origin.
They cover, protect, and provide secretory and absorptive functions
in the channels and extended pockets of the outside world
that are incorporated in the body. This applies to: the whole of
the alimentary tract from the mouth to the anus; the
respiratory tract the urogenital tract .
The sticky, thick fluid secreted by the mucous membranes and glands
is termed mucus. The term mucous membrane refers to where
they are found in the body and not every mucous membrane
secretes mucus
17
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
19. The mouth harbors a host of microbes that live more or less
permanently
These microbes are mostly symbiotic and usually do us little harm
as long as we remain healthy.
Regardless of how thoroughly we brush our teeth this NATURAL
FLORA remains literally attached to us.
The mouth, or buccal cavity, is lined with a reasonably tough
mucous membrane that is constantly irrigated by a back flow of
saliva.
This flow is directed towards the throat and has the dual purpose
of preventing micro-organisms from infecting the salivary glands
and also trapping the organisms so that they can be swallowed
19
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
20. Saliva contains an enzyme called lysozyme, which is
antibacterial and mucous which in turn contains the
immunoglobulin IgA.
Patients who have become dehydrated and hence have a
reduced flow of saliva are at a higher risk of mouth
infections.
The resident bacteria of the mouth are generally harmless.
Some such as alpha haemolytic Streptococcus are of a
positive benefit as they produce hydrogen peroxide (a
bleaching agent) which helps to keep the mouth clean.
20
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
21. Patients who are on a prolonged course of oral antibiotics run the
risk of having their normal flora wiped out.
Tonsils also assist in the protection of the buccal cavity.
The outer covering of the tonsils is extremely thin and is easily
traumatised and as such the tonsils themselves become prone to
infection especially during childhood.
21
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
23. The nose is designed so that the TURBULENT FLOW of air throws
particulate matter onto the sticky mucous lining .
The cells lining these channels secrete DEFENSINS that punch holes in
the membranes of many bacteria and destroy them.
In addition, this circuitous route through the nasal passages WARMS
cold air and COOLS hot air as it contacts the tissues along the
way.
The ciliated nasal mucosa secretes a backward-flowing stream of mucus
that traps smaller particles and has both bactericidal and
virucidal properties.
Lysozyme is also present in nasal secretions.
Sneezing is a protective reflex that expels irritants
23
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
25. Ciliated mucous membrane serves to trap any organisms in debris
that may have escaped through the upper tract.
Here the cilia beat upwards, and shift a stream of mucus towards the
pharynx to be swallowed.
The lungs, with their large surface area and numerous small
chambers, offer a rich source of nutrients and a great
potential for concealing pathogens .
Any organisms reach the alveoli, alveolar macrophages phagocytose
them.
The hilum of the lung is well supplied with lymph nodes that act as a
further filter.
Coughing is a defensive reflex that removes particulate matter or
excess mucus in the lower tract
Trachea and lungs
25
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
27. Contains a strong (hydrochloric) acid.
Many microbes are killed by this acidic environment and digested
by the proteolytic enzymes in the digestive system.
Until fairly recently it was even suggested that the stomach was
essentially sterile due to the low pH.
Discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori that lives happily in
the stomach and causes dreadful things like ulcers and stomach
cancer .Some organisms however can resist this strong acid.
Both milk and proteins are effective buffers against the stomach’s
acid .
Vomiting can also be regarded as a defence mechanism by ridding
the body of irritants and toxins . 27
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
28. The small intestine is full of DIGESTIVE ENZYMES and
DETERGENTS (bile) that agreeably digests microbes
as well as hamburger & pizza.
The small intestine may be full of nutrients, the adsorption
system of the healthy body is so efficient that these
nutrients are ABSORBED from the intestine so rapidly
that residential microbes have little to live on.
Further, the intestines are anaerobic, so obligate aerobes
are unable to grow there even if they should survive
the trip through the stomach.
The small intestine
28
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
29. The large intestine collects and processes undigested material
that passes through the small intestine.
Bacteria, including some very nasty potential pathogens, grow
robustly on this debris and yet they rarely manage to
invade the body.
The wall of the large intestine is coated with a PROTECTIVE
MUCOUS LAYER that separates the contents from direct
contact with the cells lining the large intestine.
The normal flora of the large intestine evolved to live on the
available food supply in the anaerobic conditions found
there.
The large intestine
29
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
30. The small and large intestines rely to a great extent upon
the stomach’s bactericidal action.
The administration of broad-spectrum antibiotics or
indiscriminate use of laxatives can lead the intestines
open to colonisation by pathogens
Intestines are liberally supplied with lymphatic tissue
throughout their length.
Diarrhoea & vomiting, may also be regarded as a defence
mechanism although in most instances it occurs far too
late in the course of an infection to be of much benefit
The Intestines…..
30
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
32. This region of the body is a rich source of infection for obvious reasons.
Micturition itself irrigates the urethra .The urine is a good nutrient for
many microbes
Sexual activity SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASES the exposure to potential
pathogens.
However, because the urethra is shorter in women than men, bladder
infections are more common in women.
Microbial pathogens that infect this region have adhesive pili that attach
them to the cells lining the urethra and bladder.
Faulty aseptic technique during catheterisation can therefore result in
urinary tract infections, which is one of the most common
hospital acquired infections
Genitourinary tract
32
Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
33. The anal region is continually exposed to fecal microbes, that
can produce serious or even fatal diseases if they are
introduced into the blood or tissue.
The mucous covering, while protective as long as it is
maintained, is easily breached as is the delicate anal membrane
lining itself.
The vaginal area is another region where infections are easily
established.
The vaginal lining is THIN AND EASILY DAMAGED and its rich
blood supply makes it an easy entry point for pathogens & is
a major reason why women are more likely to become infected
with the HIV from fewer exposures.
Genitourinary tract….
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Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
35. The surface of the eyeball is constantly irrigated with tears produced
by the lachrymal glands.
Tears contain high levels of lysozyme forms an effective barrier
against infection.
Blinking is a defence reflex that both eliminates irritants and ensures
even distribution of the tears.
In some conditions such as facial paralysis or stroke this reflex is lost
and it becomes necessary to prevent the eye from drying up by
keeping it closed or covered and by regular irrigation
If the diet is lacking in Vit A the production of lysozyme in the tears
decreases and can result in a predisposition to eye infection.
The Eye
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Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
36. The Ear
Ceruminous glands located in
the outer ear canal are
modified sweat glands
that produce cerumen
or ear wax.
This provides a sticky
barrier to foreign
agents entering the ear
canal
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Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
37. Physiological Barriers
• Temperature-Fever
• pH-Stomach, vagina, and skin
• Normal microflora of GI tract, skin
Superinfection
• Chemical Mediators
– Defensins-Secreted by Epithelia
– Hydrolytic enzymes of Saliva
– Lysozyme in tears
– Interferons-viral infection
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Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
38. Fever is a common medical sign characterized by an elevation
of temperature above the normal range of 36.5–37.5 °C
(98–100 °F) due to an increase in the body temperature
regulatory set-point.
Fever is considered a nonspecific defense mechanism because
it develops in response to numerous traumas.
Fever is initiated by circulating substances called pyrogens,
which affect the brain's hypothalamus and cause the
latter to raise the temperature.
A Finnish study suggested reduced mortality in bacterial
infections when fever was present.
Temperature-Fever
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Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
39. There are certainly some important immunological reactions
that are sped up by temperature.
Fevers may be useful to some extent since they allow the
body to reach high temperatures, creating hostile
environment for some pathogens with strict temperature
preferences .
White blood cells also rapidly proliferate due to the suitable
environment and can also help fight off the harmful
pathogens and microbes that invaded the body
Temperature-Fever
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Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
40. Skin flora
A study of 20 skin sites on each of 10 healthy humans
found 205 identified genera in nineteen bacterial
phyla.
Conjunctival flora
A small number of bacteria are normally present in the
conjunctiva.
Tears contain bactericides such as lysozyme, so that
microorganisms have difficulty in surviving the
lysozyme and settling on the epithelial surfaces.
Normal microflora
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Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
41. Gut flora
The average human body, consisting of about
(10,000,000,000,000 or about ten trillion) cells, has about
ten times that number of microorganisms in the gut.
Somewhere between 300 and 1000 different species live in
the gut, with most estimates at about 500.
The metabolic activity performed by these bacteria is equal to
that of a virtual organ, leading to gut bacteria being termed a
"forgotten" organ. Bacteria make up most of the flora in
the colon and 60% of the dry mass of feces.
Vaginal flora
Oral cavity
Normal microflora
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Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
42. Defensins are found in both vertebrates and invertebrates.
and also been reported in plants.
They are active against bacteria, fungi and many enveloped
and nonenveloped viruses.
Most defensins function by binding to the microbial cell
membrane, and, once embedded, forming pore-like
membrane defects that allow efflux of essential ions
and nutrients
Chemical Mediators
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Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
43. Interferon is a group of antiviral substances produced by body cells in
response to the presence of viruses.
Lymphocytes and macrophages produce alpha-interferon, epithelial
cells produce beta-interferon, and T-lymphocytes produce
gamma-interferon.
The interferons do not directly inhibit viruses. Instead, they stimulate
adjacent cells to produce substances that inhibit the replication
of viruses in those cells.
Interferons produced in response to one virus will protect against
many other types of viruses, and for this reason, interferon is
considered a nonspecific form of defense.
Chemical Mediators
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Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
45. Phagocytosis is a highly efficient cellular barrier against the
pathogenic microorganisms and is met out by uptake and digestion
of microorganisms by a variety of cells of the body’s defence system.
Includes Phagocytes (macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic
cells), Mast cells, Eosinophils, Basophils, and Natural killer cells.
These cells identify and eliminate pathogens, either by attacking
larger pathogens through contact or by engulfing and then killing
microorganisms.
Cellular Barriers
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Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
46. Neutrophils and Macrophages are phagocytes that travel throughout the body
in pursuit of invading pathogens.Neutrophils are normally found in the
bloodstream.
Dendritic cells (DC) are phagocytes in tissues that are in contact with the
external environment; they are located mainly in the skin, nose, lungs, stomach,
and intestines
Natural killer (NK cells) cells are leukocytes that attack and destroy tumor cells, or
cells that have been infected by viruses
Mast cells reside in connective tissues and mucous membranes, and regulate
the inflammatory response.
Basophils and Eosinophils are related to neutrophils. They secrete chemical
mediators that are involved in defending against parasites and play a role in
allergic reactions .
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Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda
48. Inflammation helps localizing invading microorganisms to arrest the spread of
the infection.
Characterized by the symptoms of redness, swelling, pain, and elevated
temperature of a localized area.
Redness is due to capillary dilation allowing more blood to flow.
Swelling is due to increased capillary permeability allowing accumulation of
fluids in the bases surrounding tissue cells.
Pain is due to lysis of blood cells that triggers the production of prostaglandins
and bradykininwhich alter the threshold and intensity of the nervous system
response to pain.
Elevated temperature in localized area occurs because of high metabolic
activities of neutrophils and macrophages in the increased blood flow in that
area.
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Dr. Abhay M. Shankaregowda