Normal flora, or commensal microorganisms, live throughout the human body including the skin, eyes, ears, respiratory tract, oral cavity, gastrointestinal tract, and urogenital tract. In each site, certain bacteria predominate as the normal residents. While generally harmless, normal flora can opportunistically cause infection if they spread to normally sterile sites or if the host's immune system is compromised. Normal flora play an important role in protecting against pathogens, aiding nutrient absorption, and stimulating immune system development.
Types of Normal flora
Association between human and normal flora .
Characteristics of normal flora
Tissue specificity
Specific aadherence
Biofilm formation
Normal flora of skin
Normal flora of oral cavity
Normal flora of conjunctiva
Normal flora of respiratory tract
Normal flora of gastro intestinal tract
Normal flora of urogenital tract
Beneficial effect of normal flora
Harmful effect of normal flora
Disease caused by normal flora
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
3. Symbiotic relationships between
Organisms
• Neutralism
Two organisms living together, and neither is affected by that.
• Mutualism
Two organisms living together, and both benefit from that.
• Commensalism:
Two organisms living together, one is benefited and the other
is not been affected.
• Parasitism:
Two organisms living together, one is benefited ‘’called
parasite’’ and the other is harmed ‘’called host’’.
• Synergism:
Sometimes, two (or more) microorganism may work
together “team up” to produce a disease that neither could
cause by itself.
4. Benefits
The overall beneficial effects of microbes are summarized below:
1. The normal flora synthesize and excrete vitamins in excess of their own
needs, which can be absorbed as nutrients by their host. For example, in
humans, enteric bacteria secrete Vitamin K and Vitamin B12, and lactic acid
bacteria produce certain B-vitamins. Germ-free animals may be deficient in
Vitamin K to the extent that it is necessary to supplement their diets.
2. The normal flora prevent colonization by pathogens by competing for
attachment sites or for essential nutrients. This is thought to be their most
important beneficial effect, which has been demonstrated in the oral cavity,
the intestine, the skin, and the vaginal epithelium. In some experiments,
germ-free animals can be infected by 10 Salmonella bacteria, while the
infectious dose for conventional animals is near 106 cells.
3. The normal flora may antagonize other bacteria through the production of
substances which inhibit or kill nonindigenous species. The intestinal bacteria
produce a variety of substances ranging from relatively nonspecific fatty acids
and peroxides to highly specific bacteriocins, which inhibit or kill other
bacteria.
5. 4. The normal flora stimulate the development of certain immune tissues,
i.e., the caecum and certain lymphatic tissues (Peyer's patches) in the GI tract.
The caecum of germ-free animals is enlarged, thin-walled, and fluid-filled,
compared to that organ in conventional animals. Also, based on the ability to
undergo immunological stimulation, the intestinal lymphatic tissues of germ-
free animals are poorly-developed compared to conventional animals.
5. The normal flora stimulate the production of natural antibodies. Since the
normal flora behave as antigens in an animal, they induce an immunological
response, in particular, an antibody-mediated immune (AMI) response. Low
levels of antibodies produced against components of the normal flora are
known to cross react with certain related pathogens, and thereby prevent
infection or invasion. Antibodies produced against antigenic components of
the normal flora are sometimes referred to as "natural" antibodies, and such
antibodies are lacking in germ-free animals.
6. Harmful Effects of the Normal Flora
Harmful effects of the normal flora, some of which are observed in studies with
germ-free animals, can be put in the following categories. All but the last two are
fairly insignificant.
1. Bacterial synergism between a member of the normal flora and a potential
pathogen. This means that one organism is helping another to grow or survive. There
are examples of a member of the normal flora supplying a vitamin or some other
growth factor that a pathogen needs in order to grow. This is called cross-
feeding between microbes. Another example of synergism occurs during treatment
of "staph-protected infections" when a penicillin-resistant staphylococcus that is a
component of the normal flora shares its drug resistance with pathogens that are
otherwise susceptible to the drug.
7. 2. Competition for nutrients Bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract must absorb
some of the host's nutrients for their own needs. However, in general, they
transform them into other metabolisable compounds, but some nutrient(s) may
be lost to the host. Germ-free animals are known to grow more rapidly and
efficiently than conventional animals. One explanation for incorporating
antibiotics into the food of swine, cows and poultry is that the animal grows
faster and can therefore be marketed earlier. Unfortunately, this practice
contributes to the development and spread of bacterial antibiotic resistance
within the farm animals, as well as humans.
3. Induction of a low grade toxemia Minute amounts of bacterial toxins (e.g.
endotoxin) may be found in the circulation. Of course, it is these small
amounts of bacterial antigen that stimulate the formation of natural antibodies.
8. 4. The normal flora may be agents of disease. Members of the normal flora
may cause endogenous disease if they reach a site or tissue where they
cannot be restricted or tolerated by the host defenses. Many of the normal
flora are potential pathogens, and if they gain access to a compromised tissue
from which they can invade, disease may result.
5. Transfer to susceptible hosts Some pathogens of humans that are
members of the normal flora may also rely on their host for transfer to other
individuals where they can produce disease. This includes the pathogens that
colonize the upper respiratory tract such as Neisseria meningitidis,
Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Staphylococcus
aureus, and potential pathogens such as E. coli, Salmonella or Clostridium in
the gastrointestinal tract.
9. What are Normal Flora?
• Normal flora are microorganisms (bacteria, fungi,
protozoa, and viruses), mostly bacteria that
continuously inhabited the human body
(Resident Normal Flora).
• Under normal conditions in a healthy human they
are harmless and may even be beneficial.
• Also called Commensals i.e. organisms that dine
together or Microflora.
10. Stuff about Normal Flora
• A fetus is sterile when born (No Normal Flora), then newborn
start having the normal flora from its mother, air, food and the
environment.
• Our internal organs are sterile like the spleen, liver, pancreas,
bladder, CSF, and blood unless during infection.
• Normal flora differ from one human to another depending
on age, diet, and geographic habitat.
• When the number of resident normal flora is greatly reduced,
opportunistic microbes can easily cause infections in these
areas e.g. Candida albicans that cause candidiasis.
11. Why Should We Know About Normal
Flora?
We all should know about the types and distribution of
normal flora in our bodies because:
1. It gives us better understanding of the possible
infections that result from injury to a specific body
site.
2. As well as the possible sources and significance of
microorganisms isolated from the site of an infection.
12. Transient Normal Flora
• Normal flora that are temporarily living on and within
humans.
• The transient microbes living in the external environment are
attracted to moist, warm body areas.
Why are these microbes temporary??
1. They may be washed from external areas by bathing.
2. They may not be able to compete with resident normal flora.
3. They may be killed by substances produced by the resident
normal flora.
4. They may not survive in the acidic or alkaline pH of the site.
5. They may be flushed away by bodily secretions like tears,
sweat, oil, urine, feces,..).
13. Where Can We find Normal Flora?
• The human body serves as a microbial ecosystem with a wide variety of
environments ranging from the skin to mucous membranes and the
digestive tract. Due to the microbial environmental diversity in and around
the human body, the microbial population varies depending on location.
This confers a wide range of bacteria and other microbes inhabiting the
human body. The human ear serves as a unique environment with its own
microbiome due to its distinct anatomy.
1. Skin
2. Eyes and Ears
3. Respiratory Tract
4. Oral Cavity (Mouth)
5. Gastrointestinal Tract
6. Urogenital Tract
14. Skin (pH 5.5)
• Microbial number on skin is more where there is increased
amount of moisture, higher body temperature, and greater
concentrations of skin surface lipids.
• The axilla, perineum, and toe webs are more frequently
colonized by gram-negative bacilli than are drier areas of the
skin.
• The 3 types of predominant resident microorganisms of the
skin are:
1. Staphylococcus epidermidis 90% (Gram +, cocci, opportunistic bacteria;
location…almost all over the body, illnesses; )
2. Staphylococcus aureus (Gram+, round-shaped bacterium ,
illnesses….boils, cellulitis, folliculitis, scalded skin, abscess etc)
3. Anaerobic bacteria (old name; Propionibacterium acnes and new name;
Cutibacterium acnes is a Gram +, relatively slow-growing, typically
aerotolerant anaerobic)
4. Candidia spp.
15. Eyes (pH normally neutral i.e. 7.0 to 7.3)
• Pseudomonas aeruginosa is found to be the primary
bacterium when wearing contact lens, typically soft contacts,
that can cause corneal ulcer. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a
gram-negative, aerobic rod-shaped bacterium which
optimally grows at 42 degrees celcius. Although classified as
aerobic, it can adapt and live in anaerobic environments.
Being an opportunist, this bacterium greatly affects the eye
when the defensive mechanisms of the eye are weakened.
Otherwise, it does not ordinarily cause disease. It is, however,
a very durable bacterium, some of which includes minimal
food requirement, a protective outer coating, and resistance
to many antibiotics
• Eye contain lysozymes which kill infection causing bacteria
16. Ear
• The human ear is divided into three compartments: the outer
ear, middle ear and internal ear.
• The outer ear is exposed to the environment and is covered
in skin. Earwax is produced in the outer ear in order to clean
and lubricate the skin of the outer ear. Earwax contains a
mixture of hydrocarbons, fatty acids, and cholesterol
as well as a mix of antimicrobial proteins.
• Earwax is produced by a combination of sebaceous and
apocrine glands in the outer third portion of the outer ear.
• The middle ear, or tympanic cavity, is an air-filled cavity
contain a set of three ossicles: the malleus, incus and stapes.
• The inner ear contains the organs and nerves that are
involved in hearing and balance.
17. Ear (continues….)
• The outer ear is exposed to the outside oxygen-filled
environment, the majority of the bacterial flora on the auricle
and in the external auditory canal is made up of aerobic
species. The outer ear is home to a diverse set of microbes
including bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
• The skin of the external auditory canal and auricle is predominantly
occupied by Gram-positive over Gram-negative bacteria.
• The main Gram-positive bacterial species are Staphylococcus
auricularis, S. capitis, S. epidermidis, S. warnen, Turicella
otitidis, Alloiococcus otitis, Micrococcus luteus.
• Gram-negative species inhabit the external auditory structure to a much
lesser extent with Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Moraxella osloensis.
• Candida albicans, and Penicillium species form the majority of fungal
isolates of the ear integument
18. SKIN
• Aerobic Bacteria:
- Present in the outer layer of skin.
- Staphylococcus epidermidis (accounts 90%) +
Staphylococcus aureus.
• Anaerobic Bacteria: (More than Aerobic bacteria)
- Present in the deeper skin layers, hair follicles, and
sweat & sebaceous glands.
- Propionibacterium acnes.
• Skin normal flora are generally
harmless but it might cause
bloodstream infections if skin
was penetrated.
20. EYES
• The conjunctiva of the eye has
primarily S. epidermidis, followed
by S. aureus, C. diphtheroids, and
S. pneumoniae.
• Some skin normal flora are also present but at fewer
amounts.
• Tears (Lysozyme enzyme), mucus, and oil will protect
the conjunctiva of the eye from colonization by more
bacteria.
22. EARS
• The middle ear and inner
ear: are usually sterile.
• The outer ear and the
auditory canal: contain the
same normal flora of the
skin.
• When the person coughs,
sneezes, or blows his nose,
these microbes may move
into the middle ear where
they cause infection.
23. Respiratory Tract
• Upper Respiratory Tract:
- Nose and throat have
Many microorganisms. Some
are normal flora, some are
opportunistic, and others are
carried like C. diphtheroids.
- Nasopharynx: Streptococcus pneumoniae
In immune compromised or elderly it might cause acute
bacterial pneumonia.
• Lower Respiratory Tract:
Is usually sterile because the mucous membranes of the
lungs remove any microbes.
24. Oral Cavity (Mouth)
• They have both aerobic
and anaerobic bacteria.
The most common ones are:
C. diphtheroides, S. aureus,
and S. epidermidis.
• Also yeasts, molds,
protozoa, and viruses can be living in the mouth.
Teeth and Gengiva: S. mutans
• Poor dental hygiene help bacteria to grow and cause
dental caries, gingivitis,...
• After dental surgeries, there might be a risk of
bloodstream infection that might cause endocarditis.
25. Gastrointestinal Tract
• Stomach:
Only few bacteria are present in the
stomach due to gastric enzymes and
acidic pH.
• Small intestine:
Only few normal flora are present in
the upper part of small intestine because
bile kills them. Lower parts have more no.
of normal flora.
• Large intestine:
- Has more bacteria than any other part of the body. 99% of normal flora in the
large intestine are anaerobic Bacteroides spp.
- Also many fungi, protozoa, and viruses can live there.
- Many of the normal flora are opportunistic i.e. if they move to other areas e.g.
E.coli cause urinary infection.
27. Urogenital Tract
Urinary Tract
• Kidneys, Ureters and Urinary Bladder: are sterile.
• Lower Urethra and external opening: bacteria, yeast,
and viruses. Has the same bacteria present on the skin.
Genital Organs
• Male and female genitals: are sterile except vagina.
• Vagina: Lactobacillus spp. keeps the pH acidic to protect
the vagina from opportunistic infections e.g. fungal
vaginitis (Candida albicans) or bacterial vaginosis
(Bacteroides spp., Gardnerella vaginalis).
29. Beneficial Functions of Normal Flora
1. Protect our organs and systems that are in direct
contact with the external environment from invading
pathogens. Some normal flora produce substances
that kills pathogens and others compete for with them
for nutrients.
2. In newborns, normal flora stimulates the development
of immune system.
3. Normal flora of the gut provides important nutrients
such as Vitamin K which aid in digestion and
absorption of nutrients.
30. Harmful Effect of Normal Flora
1. When the normal flora are displaced from their normal site
of the body e.g. bloodstream infections by S. epidermidis.
2. When potential pathogens gain a competitive advantage
due to diminished populations of harmless competitors e.g.
C. difficile growing in the gut after antibiotic therapy.
3. When harmless, commonly ingested food substances are
converted into carcinogenic derivatives by bacteria in the
colon e.g. sweetener cyclamate.
4. When individuals are immunocompromised, normal flora
can overgrow and become pathogenic.