Blum erosion gp
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Soil degradation occurs through two main processes: erosion by water and wind, which removes solid material; and leaching, which removes soluble matter. Erosion involves mobilization, transport, and deposition of solids, while leaching involves solubilization, transport, and precipitation/fixation of dissolved components through physicochemical and biological processes like hydration and hydrolysis. Models like the Universal Soil Loss Equation are used to estimate soil degradation from erosion and leaching over large areas based on local measurements and factors such as climate, landscape, soil type, and land use. Soil losses at one site result in deposition elsewhere through aquatic, wind, or precipitation transport.
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Introduction to Geo technical engineering
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Landslides, mudflows and rockfalls are all belonging to this category of geomorphic processes.
Mass-wasting may lead to severe natural disasters by affecting the life and building structures in different places. Understanding of mass-wasting will certainly help to mitigate the impacts of these hazards and plan the development activities.
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Water erosion shapes Earth's surface. Moving water is the major agent of erosion and has formed landforms over time. Runoff from rain carries soil particles and causes sheet and rill erosion. Rills grow into gullies which join to form streams and rivers. Rivers erode the land to form V-shaped valleys and deposit sediments in flood plains and deltas. Waterfalls form where a hard rock meets a softer rock downstream as the softer rock erodes faster. Flood plains are wide river valleys that are flooded during heavy rains, depositing fertile soils.
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1) This document summarizes a study of soil erosion in the Vishwamitri River watershed using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE).
2) The USLE factors of rainfall (R), soil erodibility (K), slope length and steepness (LS), crop management (C), and supporting practices (P) were calculated for four sub-watersheds using GIS and remote sensing data.
3) The results showed that two of the sub-watersheds (SW1 and SW2) have very severe soil erosion rates of over 97 and 129 tons/ha/year respectively, and should be prioritized for soil conservation measures.
Runoff & Flood Frequency Analysis
Watershed delineation - Runoff Computations from a watershed – Flood Frequency Analysis – Gumbell, Log Pearson and Weibull Methods of Analysis.
Watershed analysis using GIS
This document discusses GIS tools and techniques for watershed analysis including DEM, fill sinks, flow direction, flow accumulation, conditional elevation, stream ordering, snapping pour points, watershed delineation, basin delineation, and calculating flow length. Key steps are opening a DEM, preprocessing the DEM with fill and flow tools, defining streams and pour points, delineating watersheds, and calculating attributes like flow length. The overall goal is to use GIS to analyze watersheds, drainage patterns, and water flow across landscapes.
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Soil Erosion for Vishwamitri River watershed using RS and GIS
Soil Erosion for Vishwamitri River watershed using RS and GIS
Similar to Blum erosion gp
Modelling of the land relief
This document summarizes the processes of modeling land relief through meteorization, erosion, transport, and sedimentation by various geological agents. It describes 3 parts of the Earth's structure and the rock and sedimentary cycles. Various geological agents like wind, glaciers, streams, rivers, groundwater and sea are described in terms of their meteorization, erosion, transport and sedimentation processes to form landscapes. Specific landforms produced by fluvial and aeolian (wind) processes are also outlined, including badlands, fairy chimneys, dunes, loess deposits, meanders, deltas, estuaries and terraces.
A Journey of a Grain from Source to Sink.
A grain started journey from a source area and in the way it become weathered, eroded, transported and finally deposited. It is a gross geologic description of grain's journey.
Morphogenetic region-Geomorhology Chapter
- A morphogenetic region is a region where the dominant geomorphic processes, under certain climatic conditions, contribute to distinctive landscape characteristics that contrast with other regions formed under different climates.
- The concept is based on the idea that each climate produces characteristic landforms through its influence on processes like weathering, erosion, and runoff.
- Morphogenetic regions are defined by identifying major climatic/zoogeographical regions and the diagnostic landforms within them that reflect the dominant geomorphic processes operating under those particular climatic conditions.
GTE 1.pdf
This document provides an overview of geotechnical engineering and soil mechanics. It discusses the formation of soils through weathering and transportation processes. Soils are formed from the breakdown of parent rocks by physical and chemical weathering. They are then transported and deposited in new locations by various agents such as water, wind, ice and gravity. The document outlines different types of soils including residual soils formed in place and transported soils deposited elsewhere. It provides details on soil classification systems and properties relevant to geotechnical engineering applications.
Topography, landform and geomorphology-Geomorhology Chapter
This document provides definitions and information about topography, landforms, and geomorphology. It defines topography as the elevation and relief of the Earth's surface, landforms as the topographic features, and geomorphology as the study of earth surface processes and landforms. It discusses various landforms including those formed by tectonic, depositional, weathering, erosion, and mass wasting processes. It also covers related topics like uniformitarianism, the genetic classification of landforms, crustal orders of relief, and important deformation processes like folding and faulting.
1 Soil Water Erosion.pptx
This document provides an introduction and overview of soil and water conservation. It discusses how soil and water are important natural resources for agriculture but are being degraded in India. Soil erosion occurs naturally but is exacerbated by human activities like cultivation. The key forms of soil erosion by water are splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully erosion, and stream/coastal erosion. The Universal Soil Loss Equation is presented as a way to estimate average annual soil loss. Biological control measures like contour cultivation, strip cropping, intercropping, and conservation tillage are discussed as ways to reduce soil erosion.
weathering of Rocks and minerals
This document summarizes key concepts related to weathering and soil formation processes. It describes how weathering breaks down rocks through physical and chemical processes, forming regolith. The main factors that influence soil formation are then outlined, including parent material, climate, topography, organisms/vegetation, and time. Specific weathering and soil forming processes are also defined, such as podzolization, laterization, and gleization. Key minerals and their weatherability are discussed. The role of various physical and chemical weathering agents such as water, wind, temperature changes are also summarized.
ORIGIN OF SOIL.pptx
This document discusses the origin and formation of soil. It explains that soil is formed through the processes of degradation, transportation, and deposition of rocks and minerals. Degradation occurs through weathering processes like physical, chemical and biological weathering which break down rocks. Transportation involves the movement of eroded rock fragments by agents like wind and water. Finally, deposition results in the accumulation of sediments in lower elevations over time, which eventually form soil through pedogenesis.
306 practical 1
The document defines several elementary soil forming processes (ESP) that occur during pedogenesis. Biogenic-accumulative ESP involve accumulation of organic matter and litter. Hydrogenic-accumulative ESP result in accumulation of soluble salts, carbonates, and iron compounds from groundwater. Metamorphic ESP transform soil minerals without gains or losses. Eluvial ESP remove materials via leaching and podsolization. Illuvial-accumulative ESP deposit materials removed by eluvial processes. Pedoturbative ESP involve mixing of soil by freezing/thawing or bioturbation. Destructive ESP physically destroy soil through erosion.
Soil
This document discusses soil, including its composition, formation processes, and classification. Soil forms through weathering of parent materials and is influenced by climate, topography, biological factors, and time. Key processes in soil formation include leaching, eluviation, illuviation, podsolisation, and gleying. Soil taxonomy classifies soils into orders, suborders, great groups, and subgroups based on properties related to formation factors. Soil provides the medium for plant growth and is a natural resource consisting of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and living organisms.
PAPER: DETERMINATION OF SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN THE BASIN "HYDROGRAPHIC UNIT 02...
PAPER;
DETERMINATION OF SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN THE BASIN "HYDROGRAPHIC UNIT 02229" THROUGH THE USE OF REMOTE SENSING AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS;
Ingeniería Civil;
Civil engineering;
Ingeniería Ambiental;
Ambiental Engineering;
Ingeniería De Puentes;
Bridge Engineering;
S.I.G.;
Jaime Navía Téllez;
JNT;
J.N.T.;
ABSTRACT
Sediment transport is a complex phenomenon that responds to two functions, one that represents the characteristics of the basin and the other those of the river; one of the functions indicates the quantity, nature and physical properties of the materials available for transport, and the other, the capacity of the hydraulic system to do so.
This complexity makes the sediment transport problem impossible to solve by simple application of fluid mechanics theory.
The presence of particles in the flow alters the hydraulic behavior, often motivated by the presence of artificial elements, such as bridge supports or hydraulic structures, which cause the balance of the flow to be broken.
The sediments transported by water stream are a natural consequence of soil degradation, since the material from erosion reaches the currents through minor tributaries, due to the capacity of the water stream to transport solids, also due to mass movements, such as, landslides and others.
At any point in the river, the material that comes from upstream can continue to be dragged by the stream and when there is not enough transport capacity, it accumulates, giving rise to the so-called sediment deposits.
This paper presents a methodology based on the method proposed by Miranda (1992), which defines erosion as the process which a detachment and dragging of soil particles occurs, caused by the action of water, wind, or its mass removal. Water erosion is caused by the effect of rain. The impact of water droplets on bare soil causes the detachment of its particles and their removal by runoff water.
Keywords: Sediment transport, water erosion, rain erosivity, soil erodibility, length and slope factor, vegetation cover.
Chapter 2 (Watershed Characteristics).pptx
This document discusses the key biophysical characteristics of a watershed that impact its hydrology. It describes the watershed hydrological cycle, including inputs like precipitation, storages like surface water and groundwater, and outputs like evapotranspiration. It also discusses the geology, soil types, topography, and geomorphology of the watershed, explaining how each factor influences infiltration rates, runoff rates, erosion potential, and flooding. Topics like watershed size, shape, slope, and the permeability of underlying rock and soils are covered in relation to hydrological impacts.
4-Weathering-Soil-Formation-Development.pptx
Weathering, Soil Formation and Development
Weathering is the process of alteration and breakdown of soil and rock materials at and near the Earth's surface by physical, chemical and biotic processes. Types of weathering include physical, chemical and biological processes. Physical weathering occurs everywhere through exfoliation and unloading reactions. Chemical weathering reactions include dissolution, oxidation and hydrolysis. Weathering causes rocks to breakdown, and the weathered rocks are then transported downhill in the process of erosion, contributing to soil formation over long timescales and the development of fully-formed soils.
The hydrological cycle
The water cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. Water evaporates from oceans, lakes, and vegetation and rises into the atmosphere. It condenses to form clouds and precipitates as rain or snow. Precipitation that falls on land either infiltrates soil and recharges groundwater, flows overland as surface runoff returning to oceans, or is intercepted by plants. Ice also plays a role, storing water as snow and glaciers that slowly melt. The cycle continually repeats as water is recycled and redistributed around the globe.
An introduction to soils, soil formation and terminology
This document provides an introduction to soils and soil terminology. It defines soil and discusses soil profiles, horizons, and the five factors that influence soil formation: parent material, climate, organisms, relief, and time. Soil forming processes like weathering, decomposition, humification, capillary action, leaching, and translocation are also explained. The document discusses additional soil features including color, texture, and structure.
Earth and Life Report
Exogenic processes refer to activities that occur on Earth's surface, including weathering, soil formation, and erosion. Weathering breaks down rocks through mechanical and chemical processes. Soil is formed from weathered organic matter and rocks, and different soil types are identified by factors like parent material and climate. Erosion transports weathered materials from one location to another through agents such as water, wind, gravity, and animals.
ARID ENVIRONMENT AND ASSOCIATED PROCESSES
1. Arid environments receive very little rainfall, less than 25 cm per year, and cover over one-fifth of the Earth's land area. They experience high rates of evaporation and low humidity.
2. Aridity is caused by climate factors like atmospheric circulation patterns that limit rainfall, continentality which prevents moisture absorption over land, and mountain ranges that create rain shadows, as well as tectonic processes and human activities like overgrazing.
3. In arid regions, sediment is transported mainly by suspension, saltation, and creep, and weathering occurs through thermal expansion and contraction, salt crystal growth, and hydration/dehydration of minerals. Zones of net erosion that
Geomorphology at a glance: Major landforms
Geomorphology, Major landforms, Genetic landform classifications, Volcanic landforms, River Systems and Fluvial Landforms, Aeolian Landforms, Glacial Landforms
Soil formation - Factors and Processes
I have prepared the notes regarding the soil forming processes from the help of arun katyayan and University notes.
-geomorphology.pptx
Geomorphology is the study of landforms and the processes that shape the Earth's surface. Some key concepts in geomorphology include:
- The present is key to understanding the past, as the same surface processes have operated over geologic time.
- Geological structure influences landform evolution and is reflected in landforms.
- Geomorphic processes each develop characteristic landforms.
- Landforms evolve in an orderly sequence as erosional processes act over time.
- Geomorphic systems dominate large areas and landscapes can be summarized in physiographic maps.
Similar to Blum erosion gp (20)
Topography, landform and geomorphology-Geomorhology Chapter
Topography, landform and geomorphology-Geomorhology Chapter
PAPER: DETERMINATION OF SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN THE BASIN "HYDROGRAPHIC UNIT 02...
PAPER: DETERMINATION OF SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN THE BASIN "HYDROGRAPHIC UNIT 02...
An introduction to soils, soil formation and terminology
An introduction to soils, soil formation and terminology
More from Michael Newbold
Young Minds and Computer Coding
This dissertation examines whether computer programmers exhibit enhanced executive control, as seen in bilinguals. The author conducted two executive function tasks with 10 professional and 10 adolescent programmers, compared to monolingual controls. In the Attention Networks Test, programmers had significantly faster reaction times, supporting the hypothesis. In the Stroop task, programmers were slower but not significantly so. Overall, the results provide preliminary evidence that programming experience may enhance executive control, as with bilingualism, warranting future research.
Soil Degradation
Soil degradation is a serious threat to developing country food security by 2020. According to recent global studies, agricultural soil quality has declined substantially in 16% of developing world cropland, with almost 75% of Central American and 20% of African agricultural land being seriously degraded. Soil degradation is estimated to have reduced crop yields by 13% over the past 50 years and pastoral land yields by 4%. It also diminishes agricultural income and economic growth, with estimates of annual losses ranging from under 1% to over 9% of agricultural GDP in various countries. Soil degradation is projected to most severely impact food production and incomes in densely populated marginal lands in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia if not adequately addressed through policies and investments
Soil
Soil is a complex mixture of inorganic materials, living organisms, and dead organic matter that sustains physical, chemical, and biological functions to support plant and animal life. Soils form through physical and chemical weathering of rocks and biological processes. Soil characteristics include physical composition, pore content, permeability, organic material, temperature, mineral content, and water content. Soil can be degraded through erosion, acidification, salinization, compaction, and pollution from various natural and human-caused sources. Actions must be taken to assess, isolate, and eliminate soil pollution to prevent further environmental damage.
Soil erosion
Land degradation and soil erosion are major global problems. Approximately 5 billion hectares of land, or 43% of the Earth's vegetated surface, is degraded with reduced productivity. Overgrazing accounts for about one-third of degraded land, while 3.6 billion hectares are associated with desertification. A major cause is overgrazing, while 0.5 billion hectares have been degraded due to tree felling in humid tropics. Soil degradation is responsible for about 2 billion hectares of degraded land, with 85% caused by wind and water erosion which involves raindrop detachment of soil particles, transport by overland water flow or runoff, and deposition in other areas.
Soil Degradation
This document provides a summary of a report on addressing soil degradation in European Union agriculture. It discusses relevant soil degradation processes, soil conservation practices, and related policies. The key soil degradation processes addressed are erosion, organic carbon decline, compaction, salinization, contamination, and effects on biodiversity. Conservation practices discussed include conservation agriculture, organic farming, ridge tillage, contour farming, and others. The regulatory environment and policy instruments related to soil protection under the Common Agricultural Policy and environmental legislation are also analyzed. The document aims to provide an overview of the current situation regarding soil degradation and conservation in EU agriculture.
Europe’s environment the third assessment soil degradation
The document discusses soil degradation across Europe. It states that in many parts of Europe, soil is being irreversibly lost and degraded due to increasing demands from various economic sectors. Some key causes of degradation mentioned include unsustainable agricultural practices, soil sealing, erosion, contamination, acidification, salinization and compaction. The severity and distribution of degradation issues varies significantly across different regions of Europe based on factors like climate, geology, and human activities. Better integration of soil protection into sectoral policies is needed to promote more sustainable use of this limited resource.
Edu soil 2
1) Soil degradation refers to processes that reduce a soil's ability to produce goods and services for current and future generations. It occurs when inappropriate land use practices are adopted, such as deforestation, overgrazing, or unsustainable agricultural practices.
2) Agricultural activities can cause physical, chemical, and biological degradation through practices like excessive tillage, improper fertilizer and pesticide use, lack of crop rotations, and burning of crop residues. This leads to reduced soil organic matter, compaction, erosion, salinization, and loss of biodiversity.
3) The consequences of soil degradation include substantial reductions in agricultural productivity, yields, and farmers' livelihoods, as well as negative downstream impacts
Soils
This document discusses soils and their importance as a natural resource. It explains that soil is made up of weathered rock and organic material. The key factors that influence soil formation are identified as parent material, climate, living organisms, topography, and time. Parent material refers to the minerals and sediments from which soils are formed. Climate and living organisms help break down parent material over hundreds of years to create the thin, top layer of productive soil.
Soil ppt[1][1]
This document discusses the components and properties of soil. It explains that soil provides support and nutrients for plant growth. The five main components of soil are rock, sand, silt, clay, and humus. Humus adds many nutrients to the top layer of soil. There are three main layers of soil: topsoil, subsoil, and bedrock. Natural resources like soil must be conserved through practices like planting trees and grass, healthy farming, and planting gardens.
Soil properties
This document discusses key properties of soil, including the soil profile, horizons, texture, structure, composition, pH, and land capability. It describes:
- The soil profile has distinct horizons (layers) including the O, A, E, B, C horizons.
- Texture refers to particle size and influences properties like moisture holding. The three types are sand, silt, and clay.
- Structure is the way particles cling together, forming aggregates. Types include granular, blocky, and platy.
- Composition includes minerals, organic matter, air, and water. Proper levels are needed for plant growth.
- pH indicates acidity or alkalinity and greatly impacts nutrient
Section 01
Soil is formed through the interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. It is the biologically active, porous medium that develops below the land surface. Soil consists of mineral and organic components, with pore spaces filled with either air or water. As the interface between these spheres, soil impacts ecosystem dynamics and the Earth system as a whole. It is classified based on its horizons, which form layers with different properties over time through soil-forming factors like climate, organisms, relief, and parent material.
An introduction to soils, soil formation and terminology
The document provides an introduction to soils and soil terminology. It defines soil and discusses soil formation factors such as parent material, climate, organisms, relief, and time. It also examines soil processes like weathering, decomposition, humification, capillary action, leaching, and translocation. Key terms are explained, like soil horizons, soil texture, and different types of humus. Soil features including color, structure, and drainage properties are also covered.
Deforestation
The document discusses different types of forests and their role in the climate system. It describes the three main forest types: boreal forests, which are cold and slow-growing; temperate forests, which are resilient to disturbance; and tropical rainforests, which have high biodiversity but fragile soils. Tropical rainforests play a key role in the global water cycle by recycling rainfall and fueling more storms. Deforestation is a concern because it reduces biodiversity, increases carbon dioxide emissions, and impacts regional climates by decreasing evapotranspiration and rainfall.
Deforestation presentation
This document summarizes the main causes and reasons for deforestation globally and in Turkey specifically. The key drivers of deforestation discussed are population growth, agriculture expansion, logging, fuel needs, and grazing. Deforestation results in declines in habitats, biodiversity, and forest resources. While forest management practices could help mitigate deforestation, many developing countries lack strong forestry institutions and local cooperation is sometimes lacking. The document also provides a brief overview of Turkey's forestation policies and goals to increase forest coverage from its current level of around 27% of land.
Deforestation & conservation efforts
The document summarizes the causes and effects of deforestation. It notes that 11,000 years ago, forests covered most of the Earth but now cover only one-fifth due to clearing for fuel, commodities, livestock, and settlements. Deforestation results in habitat loss, biodiversity loss, soil erosion, disrupted water cycles, increased flooding and drought, and climate change through reduced carbon storage. Efforts are needed to reduce dependency on forests, practice reforestation, and educate communities on sustainable forest management.
Dark-ages and deforestation
This document summarizes research on deforestation throughout history. It discusses how deforestation has long been a major process transforming landscapes, but knowledge of deforestation before 1500 is limited due to sparse records. Recent scholarship has provided more details on prehistoric and classical era deforestation. The Neolithic era saw more permanent forest clearing for agriculture than previously believed. Deforestation increased greatly in medieval Europe to support growing populations.
Deforestation and ownership
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
Reducing emissions-from-deforestation
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Marketing local-food
This document provides an introduction to marketing local food and discusses various direct and intermediate marketing options for farmers. It begins with a self-assessment tool to help farmers identify their preferences and strengths in terms of customer contact, regulations, liability, pricing, and paperwork/organization. This can help determine which marketing strategies may be the best fit. The document then provides overviews and profiles of different local food marketing approaches, including farmers' markets, community supported agriculture, agritourism, pick-your-own, roadside stands, restaurants/grocery stores, institutional food service, brokers/distributors, and collaboratives. Later sections cover general topics like regulations, food safety, liability, pricing, branding and more.
Local foods
This document discusses the benefits of buying local food. It defines local and sustainable food systems as those that emphasize proximity, efficiency, and seasonality in food production, distribution and consumption. Local systems address issues like food security, community self-reliance and environmental sustainability by strengthening relationships between food producers and consumers. They also keep more of the financial benefits of the food system within the local community. The document encourages supporting local farms and businesses by making conscious purchasing decisions and voices that buying local food can help build a stronger, more resilient local food system.
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Blum erosion gp
- 1. SOIL DEGRADATION WITHIN THE SOILCRITZONE CONCEPT by Winfried E.H. Blum and Svetla Rousseva
- 2. SOIL DEGRADATION = SOIL LOSS - as solid material = erosion by water and wind (on erosion, there exists an enormous amount of literature) - as soluble matter = leaching
- 4. EROSION THROUGH WATER AND WIND ARE DIFFERENT PROCESSES IN PRINCIPLE, THREE STEPS CAN BE DISTINGUISHED: - MOBILISATION - TRANSPORT - DEPOSITION
- 5. - HYDRATATION - HYDROLYSIS = PROTOLYSIS - OXIDATION - COMPLEXATION IN THREE STEPS: - SOLUBILISATION -TRANSPORT - PRECIPITATION AND FIXATION LEACHING OCCURS THROUGH DIFFERENT PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES:
- 6. WATER EROSION: USLE = Universal Soil Loss Equation A = R . K . L . S . C . P A = soil loss ( g.m-2; t.ha-1) R = rainfall erosivity (kinetic energy of rain) K = soil erodibility (texture, structure etc.) L = length of the slope S = slope degree (inclination) C = influence of land use (type of agriculture, forestry etc. P = measures against erosion (e.g. terracing, countour stripping etc.
- 7. FORMS OF EROSION: - sheet erosion - rill erosion - gully erosion - tunnel erosion - harvest erosion (see pictures)
- 14. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL DEGRADATION - Recent (actual) erosion Measurement on erosion plots (on site) Hydrological measurements in small watersheds by gauges Problems: - not all eroded soil material reaches the waterways, but is deposited close to the erosion site; - extrapolation of results from some m² to large areas is difficult or impossible; - because soil formation is a process of thousands of years, as well as soil degradation, actual measurements are not very indicative for long time periods
- 18. - HISTORICAL (PAST) EROSION might have been quite different to the actual one, because of different climate conditions (climate variations in historical times): - topomorphic approaches: measurement of lake sediments or sediments deposited downhill in lower slope positions or in alluvial plains; - measurement of isotopes; - luminescence measurements; - time markers, such as volcanic depositions of known age in sediment layers; Exact results are in general difficult to obtain. - RESULTS OF LEACHING PROCESSES mass balances based on known processes, e.g. limestone weathering and deposition of calcrete
- 20. Estimations (assessment) of soil degradation by erosion and leaching are based on models, extrapolating local results of measurements onto larger areas, taking into consideration factors such as climatic influence, landscape, soil type, vegetation cover, land use and others (see USLE). There are some dozen models available for different physio-geographic regions of the world.
- 21. CONCLUSIONS 1. Soil degradation is causing loss of soil material, counterbalancing soil formation through weathering of rock parent material; 2. Soil losses occur in solid (erosion) and liquid (leaching) form; 3. Soil losses on one site mean at the same time deposition of the lost material on other sites - through aquatic/hydraulic transport and deposition; - through wind transport and deposition; - through precipitation after mobilisation and leaching; 4. Land and soil surfaces without protective vegetation cover like deserts were always sources of soil material, whereas others were sinks, gaining soil material, see e.g. Sahara dust in South and North America