This document provides an introduction to biogeography and island ecosystems. It defines biogeography as the study of patterns of distribution of living organisms in space and time. It discusses different types of islands, including oceanic and continental islands. The key points of the equilibrium theory of island biogeography are explained. Criticisms of the theory are mentioned. Island ecosystems are described, including how different organisms can disperse to islands. Measures of biodiversity such as diversity indexes are also covered.

1. BIOGEOGRAPHY AND
ECOSYSTEMS 2
HGGB
401
LECTURE1:INTRODUC
TION
Kunedzimwe Francisca

2. Recap….. What is
biogeography
 The discipline can best be defined as the
study of patterns of distribution of living
organisms in space and time.
 There are two distinct parts of this definition:
 It looks at distribution patterns-where living things live, or
used to live or might live in the future
 We look at a species physical environment, how it adapts
to its particular environment, its biology and its
evolutionary history. 8/25/2022
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3. Definition
 Biogeography is the study of the
distribution of organisms across
 space and
 time
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4. The Biosphere
 What does it comprise of?
 (discussion in pairs)
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5. NATURE AND SCOPE OF
BIOGEOGRAPHY—Island
Biogeography
 All islands have one thing in common:
 -they are isolated.
 These are areas of land separated from the
mainland by sea or fresh water where few
terrestrial organisms can survive for long
 Island have limited size in comparison to
adjacent land masses.
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6. Island Biogeography……
 they are subject to an oceanic climate which
has a
 lower temperature humidity,
 higher wind speeds than mainland areas of
similar latitude.
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7. Island Biogeography
 Islands can be classified as being either
 oceanic
 continental.
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8. Continental and Oceanic Islands
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9. Island Biogeography
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 Oceanic islands are very isolated and
surrounded by deep water.
 Examples of oceanic islands are Hawaii and
the Galapagos

10. Island Biogeography cont….
 Geologically,
 they are relatively young,
 being formed after the mid-Tertary Period by
 volcanic extrusions and
 associated coral reefs and atolls or in a few
cases, large detached pieces of continental rock.
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11. Continental Islands
 These are actually detached pieces of the
adjacent land mass to which they were
connected in the recent past.
 They are usually located on the continental
shelf and are surrounded by comparatively
shallow water.
 It can be concluded that the majority of
continental islands’ organisms are derived
from the nearby land mass and will be quite
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12. Continental Islands
 Continental Islands which are connected to the
Asian mainland are
 Sumatra,
 Java,
 Borneo
 and Ceylon.
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13. Continental Islands
 New Guinea was formerly part of Australia and
supports a basically similar relic fauna and
Flora.
 British Isles are another example of
continental islands with Ireland separating
from Great Britain before the latter became
separated from mainland Europe.
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14. Task
FIND THE LOCATION OF DIFFERENT
ISLANDS ON THE WORLD MAP
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15.  Thank you for your
attention
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16. Island Ecosystems
 The climate of Islands is generally cooler,
wetter and windier than the mainland.
 They have a longer coastline with their
associated habitats than the mainland.
 If an Island is smaller than nine hactares, it
will consist of either all rock or mainly beach
habitat restrict the number of organisms to a
few salt-resistant or salt tolerant species
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17. Island Ecosystems
 Flying organisms may be capable of reaching
even the most distant islands, especially if
they are able to alight on the surface of water
to rest without becoming waterlogged
 Smaller birds and bats and insects army be
carried passively on high wind currents.
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18. Island Ecosystems
 Flying organisms can also carry other
organisms or the resting on the bodies of other
organisms, such as eggs spores seeds and
fruits which attach themselves to various parts
of the body of the flying organism, thus
hitching a ride to islands
 Floating rafts can also carry other organisms
with them to the destined islands.
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19. Island Ecosystems
 Generally it is easier for plants to travel to
islands than it is for animals because:
 Plant tend to have long dormant periods which can
come to life again when environmental conditions are
favourable.
 The dispersal mechanims plants carry such as being
sticky, having hooks and being light pre-disposes them
to easier transportation across oceans to Islands
 The spore of some other plants such as bryophytes
are so small that they can be easily carried long
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20. Island Ecosystems
 Another advantage plants have over animals is that
 a successful colonization only requires a single
fertile spore or seed whereas for animals a breeding
pair is required.
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21. The equilibrium theory of
Island Biogeography
 The ETIB describes the theoretical relationship
between
 immigration and
 extinction of species to islands,
 depending on their size and distance from the
mainland or other species source.

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22. The equilibrium theory of
Island Biogeography
 the number of species present on an island is
determined by a balance between immigration
and extinction.
 Generally, as the number of species present
increases, the immigration rate decreases and
the extinction rate increases.
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23. The equilibrium theory of
Island Biogeography
 Famous naturalist,
 Darwin Wallace
 Hooker noted some patterns in nature and sought
explanations for them.
 Macauthor and Wilson(19670) used
Darlington’s case study of reptile and
amphibian species occuring on islands of the
West Indies. 8/25/2022
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24. The equilibrium theory of
Island Biogeography…..
 Darlington had concluded that division of the
area by ten,
 Hence in going from one island to the next
divides the number of reptile and Amphibian
species by two.
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25. The equilibrium theory of
Island Biogeography
Isolated islands
have fewer species
per unit area than those
closer to other islands………
WHY?...............
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26. The equilibrium theory of Island
Biogeography-effect of isolation
 The nearer the source the richer the Biota
 The more isolated the island the fewer the
animal and plant species .
 Each sea barrier further reduces the number of
species of the next island, which in turn
becomes a poorer source for the next
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27. Criticisms of the equilibrium
theory
 The theory has been criticised because of its
simplicity since it treats all species together
with the implicit assumption that they are equal
in numbers and constant for a given island
 Tivy (1993) points out that the theory assumes
that species number and emigration rate are
depended
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28. Criticisms of the equilibrium
theory
 However , large islands are more likely than
small ones to be in the path of migrants.
 Furthermore the theory does not take
environmental, biotic or historical factors into
account.
 The relationship between species number and
island area is less close on temperate islands,
where temperature is a more important limiting
factor than on tropical islands.
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29. Criticism cont……..
 Only one of the predictions of the theory, that
the number of species on an island will
increase directly with increase in area now
seems reliable.
 Large nature reserves should therefore retain
more species and suffer fewer extinctions
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30. Criticisms cont….
 There is also the human aspect which is also
devastating in nature
 In Zimbabwe species such as wattle,jacaranda
and lantana are vigorous alien invaders which
have replaced indigenous species.
 The introduction of monoculture also
introduced pests and exotic weeds.
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31. NATURE AND SCOPE OF
BIOGEOGRAPHY
 Biodiversity loss and extinction risk.
Biodiversity hotspots and conservation
priorities.
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32. Biodiversity loss and extinction
risk
 biodiversity loss is the extinction of species
(human, plant or animal)
 or can be regarded as local reduction or loss
of species in a certain habitat.
 Species loss can be permanent or temporary
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33. Biodiversity loss and extinction
risk
 richness,
 evenness and
 heterogeneity
 are considered to be the main dimensions along
which diversity can be measured.
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34. Diversity indexes…
 Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of
diversity.
 In ecology, it is often used to quantify the
biodiversity of a habitat.
 It takes into account the number of species
present, as well as the abundance of each
species
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35. Diversity indexes……
 The two main factors taken into account when
measuring diversity are
richness
evenness
Richness
 is a measure of the number of different kinds
of organisms present in a particular area.
 eg species richness is the number of different species
present
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36. Diversity indexes…..
 Evenness compares the similarity of the
population size of each of the species present.
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37. Diversity indexes
 D = sum(n / N)2
 n = the total number of organisms of a
particular species
N = the total number of organisms of all
species
 Simpson's Index of Diversity 1 - D
 Simpson's Reciprocal Index 1 / D
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38. Biodiversity hotspots and
conservation priorities.
 A biodiversity hotspot
 is a biogeographic region with significant levels of
biodiversity that is threatened with destruction.
 Eg forests are considered as biodiversity hotspots.
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39. Fundamental biogeographic
processes
 The patterns of species distribution across
geographical areas can usually be explained
through a combination of historical factors
such as: speciation, extinction, continental
drift, and glaciation.
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40. Fundamentals of ecosystem
change---evolution
 Darwin – survival and reproduction of the
fittest –natural selection
 variation occurs by mutation and
recombination mutation results when DNA is
changed
 Recombination – offspring receive two
different copies or alleles of each gene
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41. SPECIES CONCEPT
 The species concept
 Niche and neutral theories of biodiversity
 Species assembly rules/processes
 Measures of diversity

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42. ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE &
FUNCTIONING
 Biotic controls over functioning of ecosystems.
Species interactions: Predation;
herbivory/grazing; competition; facilitation;
mutualisms. Primary production in
ecosystems. Factors controlling primary
production; Global patterns of primary
production; Methods for measuring primary
production. [10]

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43. DRIVERS OF ECOSYSTEM
CHANGE
 : Land use changes and habitat destruction.
Over-exploitation. Climate change and its
impacts on species distributions. Can species
migrate fast enough in modified landscapes to
remain within climatic optima? Alien species
invasions and biodiversity loss.
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44. MAPPING BIODIVERSITY AND
ECOSYSTEMS
 Species level. Species range vs species
distributions. Extrapolating from point
collections to species distributions. Range
maps. Ecological niche modeling and
geographic distributions of species; modeling
techniques and discrepancies. Mapping
habitats. Mapping communities, ecosystems
and biomes. Measuring ecosystem energy
with satellite remote sensing
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45. What is Human Ecology?
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46. Administration of the EIA
Policy
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47. Actors in the EIA process
 Proponent
 Advisors
 Environment Ministry
 Public
 Impact Assessors/Consultants
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48. Overview of Stages in the EIA
Process
 screening
 Scoping
 Impact predication
 Impact Assessment
 Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
 Review
 Monitoring
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49. Assessment of the
Environment
 Screening
 Which projects require an EIA?
 EIA Guide lines
 Scoping
 Selecting relevant environmental effects
 Baseline Survey
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50. Assement continue.............
 Review
 Adequacy of the EIS for its completeness
with reference to legislation
 Monitoring
 Check whether the impacts caused by the
project are consistent with forecasted
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51. Overview of EIA Methods
and Techniques
 Checklists
 Interactive matrices
 Networks
 Cost benefit Analysis
 Overlaying
 Simulation Modeling
 Multi-criteria decision making
 Methods to determine the relative importance
of effects
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52. Biophysical Impact prediction
and assessment_ Practicals
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53. Baseline study /Impact
identification
 Ecological and biodiversity survey using GIS
and Remote Sensing RS
 Water Resources Surveys using GIS and RS
 Topographical and Soils surveys using
GIS and RS
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54. Impact Prediction Methods
 Impact prediction using GIS
 - Example of a dam construction
 Scenario modeling using GIS
 - Example of a dam construction
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55. Impact Assessment Using
Multicriteria analysis and GIS
 - make an estimate of the w value of present
or future situation(significance assessment)
 - Example of a dam construction
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56. Socio- economic Impact
Prediction and assessment
 Public Participation
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57. Managing the EIA process
 Setting terms of references (TOR)
 EIA Report EIS
 EIA Review
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58. 8/25/2022
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59. 8/25/2022
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60. 8/25/2022
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61. Introduction
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 What is socio-economic impact assessment?
 Measure of a project’s impact on the social and
economic fabric of affected areas and stakeholders
 Involves public in assessing project necessity
 Gives public chance to accept or reject project
 Cost-benefit analysis of a project and its impacts

62. 20 Days
60 Days
Screening

63. Structure of presentation
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 Objectives
 Major socio-economic issues
 Typical socio-economic impacts
 Methods of socio-economic impact
assessment
 Management and mitigation plan
 Composition of consulting team
 Activities or tasks

64. Objectives
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 By the end of the training you should be able to:
 Define SEIA and its purpose (See Introduction)
 Identify the major socio-economic issues involved in
SEIA
 Identify the likely socio-economic impacts
 Select appropriate methods to analyze the socio-
economic impacts
 Prepare appropriate TOR’s for the SEIA
 Select or put together an SEIA consulting team

65. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
IMPACT ASSESSMENT: THE
ISSUES TO CONSIDER
Dr. Lazarus Zanamwe
With assistance from
Mrs. I. Mbengo

66. Major Socio-economic issues
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 Divided into three phases
 Planning
 Construction
 Operation

67. Major Socio-economic issues
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 Planning phase issues to consider:
 Social issues:
 Impact on local communities way of life
 Displacement or relocation of people
 Compensation and housing of displaced people
 Consultation, participation and support from local
people

68. Planning phase (contd.)
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 Social issues
 Dealing with possible resistance to development
 Restrictions to access (e.g. pathways, religious
sites)
 Threat to traditional sites and artifacts
 Threat to historical and paleontological sites and
materials

69. Planning phase (contd.)
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 Social issues
 Loss of access to traditional natural resources
 Management of illegal access and squatting
 Provision of adequate housing for employees
 Increased risk to public health

70. Planning phase (contd.)
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 Economic issues
 Land tenure issues
 Effect on property values
 Permanent loss of land (opportunity cost)
 Effect on household incomes
 Effects of secondary and downstream economic
activity
 Sustainability of chosen technology

71. Planning phase (contd.)
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 Economic issues
 Compliance with national policy, law and
standards
 Compliance with operative
master/development/structure/local plans
 Compliance with international conventions and
protocols
 Compliance with voluntary standards

72. Major Socio-economic issues
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 Construction phase issues to consider:
 Deforestation
 Loss or change of biomass and biodiversity
 Loss of genetic materials
 Endangered species
 Effect on local wildlife movement patterns
 Loss or change of local ecosystems
 Loss or change of soil quality and quantity
 Erosion
 Sedimentation of water bodies

73. Construction phase (contd.)
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 Threat to cultural or historical sites or artifacts
 Demographic changes
 Health concerns
 Noise and dust
 Accidents
 Diseases
 Pollution of water bodies

74. Construction phase (contd.)
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 Impact on local traditions
 Effect of migrant workers on local community

75. Operational phase issues
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 Issues to consider include:
 Socio-cultural changes to communities
 Disruption of wildlife populations
 Conflict between wildlife and people
 Disruption to distribution and behaviour of wildlife
 Stress on natural environmental features

76. Operational phase issues
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 Issues to consider (contd.)
 Increase in vehicular traffic to/from and environs
 Lack of control over tourist behaviour
 Handling and disposal of waste products
 Change in economic status of local communities
 Environmentally unsustainable secondary
economic activities

77. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT
ASSESSMENT: TYPICAL SOCIO-
ECONOMIC IMPACTS
Dr. Lazarus Zanamwe
With assistance from
Mrs. I. Mbengo

78. Typical socio-economic impacts
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 Typical impacts to consider include:
 Air pollution
 Increased fire hazard
 Illegal hunting
 Noise and nuisance from vehicles
 Increase vehicular wear and tear on roads
 Reduced aesthetic value of landscape

79. Typical socio-economic impacts
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 Typical impacts (contd.)
 Increase in social ills
 Impact on standards of living
 Damage/ loss of historical/ cultural sites and
materials
 Increased risk of diseases
 Loss of access to traditional natural resources
 Change in employment and income levels

80. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
IMPACT ASSESSMENT:
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Dr. Lazarus Zanamwe
With assistance from
Mrs. I. Mbengo

81. Methods of SEIA
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 Various methods to be considered
 Baseline survey
 Traffic counts
 Description of current socio-economic status of
the development
 Used in management and monitoring plan
 Used during the operational phase

82. Description of current status
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 Issues to consider include:
 Demographic status
 Size, distribution and composition
 Scenic status
 Social and economic activities
 Administrative, political and cultural setup
 Social infrastructure
 Religious considerations

83. Public consultation
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 Rationale for public consultation:
 Public are stakeholders in any development
 Many interest groups need to be informed
 Mandatory in Zimbabwe to consult

84. Objectives of public
consultation
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 Project creates changes
 Information empowers people to make better
decisions
 Consultation taps into local indigenous
knowledge
 Consultation can help avoid gaps in EIA process
 Local people can assist with suggestions on
management and monitoring
 Democratic right to be consulted

85. Methods of public consultation
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 Many and varied include:
 Passive methods
 Press conferences
 Information notices
 Brochures
 Participatory methods
 Key informant interviews
 Questionnaire interviews and polls (voting)
 Focus group discussions
 Written submissions or testimonials
 Delphi techniques
 Public hearings
 Internet sites

86. Passive methods
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 Press conferences, information notices and
brochures
 Give information on proposed development
 Proponent’s point of view
 One way communication system
 Possibility of feedback through written responses
e.g. letters to the editor

87. Key informant interviews
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 Aimed at persons who are influential or key
stakeholders
 Chiefs and other community or traditional leaders
 Business leaders
 Religious and cultural groups
 Politicians and various government departments
 Local authority leaders
 Professional groups or umbrella bodies
 NGO and other civil society groups

88. Key informant interviews
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 Elements of KII:
 Need to develop an interview guide
 Awareness of the proposed development
 Opinion on whether the development should go ahead
 Perceived socio-economic impacts
 Perceived significant impacts
 Opinion on management and mitigation measures

89. Elements of KII:
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 Constraints
 Time
 need to set up appointments
 some respondents might only be available after hours
 Availability of respondents
 Spatial distribution of respondents
 Time and transport management
 Interview guide is complex to construct
 Need different guides for different key informants

90. Questionnaires and polls
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 Elements of Q & P:
 Designed to collect information directly from the
public or communities
 Similar topics as in the KII
 Sample is larger than the KII
 Additional subjects might also be included

91. Elements of Q & P:
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 Constraints
 Need to obtain permission from relevant authorities
 Willingness of respondents to participate
 Timing is crucial in terms of work cycle
 Need an entry person point
 Questionnaire is complex to design
 Number of questions versus time for interview
 Designed in English but needs translation
 Decide on open or closed-ended questionnaire
 Questions might be difficult to analyses or code

92. Elements of Q & P:
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 Advantages:
 Larger sample tends to be representative
 Responses from the public compared to the KI
 Quantitative data generated gives statistical
soundness
 Polling gives concrete decisions or directions

93. Focus groups discussion
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 Designed to gather data from group settings
 Group dynamics important
 6-12 persons with similar interests or backgrounds
 Opinions are obtained from group participation
 FGD guide with up to 10 questions prepared
 Additional questions arise from the discussion

94. Focus groups discussion
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 Constraints
 Group formation
 Timing
 Formulating appropriate questions
 Team formation
 The facilitator
 The note takers
 Electronic means to back up
 Expense to set-up

95. Focus groups discussion
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 Advantages
 Derived from group dynamics
 Insights of local concerns can be gained
 Suggestions will have community backing
 All community concerns can be addressed
 Can be used to generate questions for KII and Q
& P

96. Delphi techniques
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 Expert opinion
 Useful where issues are not clear
 Can be used to generate questions for FGD

97. Public hearings
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 Tend to be large gatherings of interested
parties
 Take place in some form of hall
 Gives all who can attend a chance to participate
 Take as long as there are suggestions
 Questions to guide the discussions are
prepared

98. Written submissions / testimonials
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 Obtained either during public hearings or
through adverts in the press
 Aimed at collecting written opinions on the
desirability or otherwise of the development
 Should be submitted as part of the EIA report

99. Internet sites
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 The proponent may establish an Internet site
 Should be functional throughout the life of the
development
 Should have room for comments from the
public and other stakeholders
 Should be up-dated on a regular basis

100. Overall constraints to Public
Consultation
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 Constraints to Public Consultation can arise
from:
 Poverty (powerlessness, voicelessness, vulnerability,
fear)
 Locality (rural settings)
 Educational status (illiteracy, non-local languages)
 Ethnicity (culture, religion, traditions)
 Legal systems
 Political context
 Interest groups
 confidentiality

101. Tips for successful PC
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 Timely
 Continuous
 Assure confidentiality at all times
 Coincide with project cycle activities
 Overcome constraints
 Reach all important stakeholders

102. Data analysis tools
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 SEIA statistical packages
 SPSS
 Spreadsheets
 Manual analysis

103. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT
ASSESSMENT: INDICATORS OF
POTENTIAL IMPACTS
Dr. Lazarus Zanamwe
With assistance from
Mrs. I. Mbengo

104. Indicators of potential impacts
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 Environmental carrying capacity of sensitive
ecological sites or cultural properties
 Social carrying capacity
 Disruption of local community ties due to relocation
 Potential sources of conflicts
 People versus wildlife
 Tourism versus local communities
 Local communities versus interest groups
 Resistance to development or relocation

105. Indicators of potential impacts
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 Physical carrying capacity of local
infrastructure
 Vehicular traffic
 Pedestrian traffic
 Stress on the social infrastructure (e.g. sanitation,
water, electricity, food outlets, waste and refuse
collection, etc)

106. Indicators of potential impacts
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 Economic impacts
 Loss of business due to relocation
 Reduced or increased business due to the
development
 Decreased or increased revenue base for local
authority
 Downstream activities might have positive or
negative socio-economic impacts

107. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT
ASSESSMENT: MANAGEMENT
AND MONITORING PLAN
Dr. Lazarus Zanamwe
with assistance from
Mrs. I. Mbengo

108. Management and monitoring plan
Significant Impact M & M Plan
Deforestation -Minimal land clearance
-Reforest using native species
Means of access -Utilize land of little value
-Harmonize with surroundings
Noisy traffic/
accidents
-locate away from residential areas
-Monitor to reduce noise levels
-Carry out road safety awareness
campaigns
-Carry out driver education
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109. Management and monitoring plan
Significant Impact M & M Plan
Pollution of water sources - Protect and control freshwater resources
and watersheds
Waste disposal -reduce and recycle waste
Construction materials -Source from sustainable sources
-Use natural materials to blend with
environment
Cultural concerns -consult local leadership on actions to
take
- Respect local cultures
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110. Management and monitoring plan
Significant Impact M & M Plan
Human health -Public health awareness
campaigns for staff, clients, the
public
-Expand health delivery services
Influx of outside workers -employ locals during construction
and operation
Carrying capacity / stress - Record visitor statistics as
management and monitoring tool
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111. Composition of team
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 Consider the following experts:
 Environmental impact assessment specialist
 Civil engineer: wastewater, roads, water supply
 Ecologist
 Park and recreational planner
 Ecologist
 Sociologist or anthropologist
 Archeologist or paleontologist
 Specialist in tourism economics
 Specialist in tourism marketing
 Legal expert(s) land tenure, environmental law,
cultural property

112. Summary of Overview
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 The session has covered the following topics:
 Introduction and objectives
 Major socio-economic issues
 Typical socio-economic impacts
 Methods and techniques
 Indicators of potential impacts
 Management and monitoring plan
 Composition of an SEIA team

113. Looking forward
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 The next session will cover in detail
 Public Consultation
 Assessment criteria tables
 Overview of EIA in Zimbabwe