Biodiesel can be made through several processes, including direct use and blending of vegetable oils with diesel, microemulsions, thermal cracking through pyrolysis, and transesterification. Transesterification is the most common process, where a fat or oil is reacted with an alcohol in the presence of a catalyst to form esters and glycerol. Key factors that affect the transesterification reaction include the molar ratio of alcohol to oil, the type of catalyst used, the reaction time, and temperature. The conversion rate increases with longer reaction times and higher temperatures, with most reactions taking less than an hour to reach high yields.
Thermal decomposition of fats and oils occurs when they are heated to high temperatures, such as during deep fat frying. This causes lipids to break down through hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerization, deteriorating the oil quality. Trans fatty acids are formed as unsaturated fatty acids break down and change from cis to trans configurations. Consumption of trans fats is linked to increased risk of heart disease, diabetes, and obesity. Many food companies use trans fats because they have desirable qualities for food processing but they are now being restricted or banned in many places due to health concerns.
The document discusses optimization of biodiesel production from sunflower oil using response surface methodology. Three variables (temperature, catalyst concentration, and molar ratio of methanol to oil) were analyzed for their interaction effects on biodiesel yield using a central composite design. The maximum predicted biodiesel yield of 98.181% was obtained at 48°C, a methanol to oil ratio of 6.825:1, 0.679 wt% catalyst concentration, and 2 hours of reaction time. Response surface methodology was successfully used to optimize the transesterification process for high biodiesel production.
1. The document discusses monoacylglycerols (MAG) which are widely used as emulsifiers. They are currently produced through a high temperature chemical process using alkaline catalysts, which yields impurities and requires extensive purification.
2. Biocatalysis using immobilized lipases is presented as a potential alternative that could produce MAG at ambient temperatures with less energy and in a more natural process. Various reactor configurations for continuous lipase-catalyzed MAG production are discussed.
3. The research aims to investigate continuous glycerolysis of palm olein for MAG production using immobilized lipase in suitable bioreactors and scale up the system. Palm olein is abundant and inexpensive in
This document provides an overview of key concepts in energy and chemistry revision including enthalpy, calorimetry, endothermic and exothermic reactions, standard enthalpy changes, rates of reaction, collision theory, factors affecting rates, catalysts, equilibrium, and Le Chatelier's principle. Specific examples such as the Haber process for ammonia production are discussed.
The document summarizes various processes for biodiesel production, with a focus on transesterification. It describes four main methods - pyrolysis, micro-emulsification, dilution, and transesterification. Transesterification, which is the reaction of triglycerides with alcohol in the presence of an acid or base catalyst, is identified as the most common industrial process. The key steps of transesterification including catalyst selection, reaction conditions, and separation of biodiesel and glycerol are outlined. Post-production processes like refining, washing, drying and additive treatment are also summarized to purify the biodiesel and meet fuel standards.
What is catalysis, its type and its applicationLovnish Thakur
This document will give you information about catalysis and type of catalysis like homogenious and heterogenious catalysis and its various application .
this presentation is about the technology in the oil called interesterification, This presentation is giving the knowledge about how interesterification is done and its classification
Click Chemistry Presentation - for Department of Chemistry, University of Mi...Aswin Garimalla
This document provides an overview of click chemistry, including:
1. Click chemistry involves high-yielding reactions like cycloadditions that are modular and generate few byproducts.
2. Examples of click reactions discussed include the copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition, additions to olefins and strained rings, and protecting group chemistry.
3. Applications of click chemistry discussed include bioconjugation, materials science, drug discovery, and multi-component reactions.
Thermal decomposition of fats and oils occurs when they are heated to high temperatures, such as during deep fat frying. This causes lipids to break down through hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerization, deteriorating the oil quality. Trans fatty acids are formed as unsaturated fatty acids break down and change from cis to trans configurations. Consumption of trans fats is linked to increased risk of heart disease, diabetes, and obesity. Many food companies use trans fats because they have desirable qualities for food processing but they are now being restricted or banned in many places due to health concerns.
The document discusses optimization of biodiesel production from sunflower oil using response surface methodology. Three variables (temperature, catalyst concentration, and molar ratio of methanol to oil) were analyzed for their interaction effects on biodiesel yield using a central composite design. The maximum predicted biodiesel yield of 98.181% was obtained at 48°C, a methanol to oil ratio of 6.825:1, 0.679 wt% catalyst concentration, and 2 hours of reaction time. Response surface methodology was successfully used to optimize the transesterification process for high biodiesel production.
1. The document discusses monoacylglycerols (MAG) which are widely used as emulsifiers. They are currently produced through a high temperature chemical process using alkaline catalysts, which yields impurities and requires extensive purification.
2. Biocatalysis using immobilized lipases is presented as a potential alternative that could produce MAG at ambient temperatures with less energy and in a more natural process. Various reactor configurations for continuous lipase-catalyzed MAG production are discussed.
3. The research aims to investigate continuous glycerolysis of palm olein for MAG production using immobilized lipase in suitable bioreactors and scale up the system. Palm olein is abundant and inexpensive in
This document provides an overview of key concepts in energy and chemistry revision including enthalpy, calorimetry, endothermic and exothermic reactions, standard enthalpy changes, rates of reaction, collision theory, factors affecting rates, catalysts, equilibrium, and Le Chatelier's principle. Specific examples such as the Haber process for ammonia production are discussed.
The document summarizes various processes for biodiesel production, with a focus on transesterification. It describes four main methods - pyrolysis, micro-emulsification, dilution, and transesterification. Transesterification, which is the reaction of triglycerides with alcohol in the presence of an acid or base catalyst, is identified as the most common industrial process. The key steps of transesterification including catalyst selection, reaction conditions, and separation of biodiesel and glycerol are outlined. Post-production processes like refining, washing, drying and additive treatment are also summarized to purify the biodiesel and meet fuel standards.
What is catalysis, its type and its applicationLovnish Thakur
This document will give you information about catalysis and type of catalysis like homogenious and heterogenious catalysis and its various application .
this presentation is about the technology in the oil called interesterification, This presentation is giving the knowledge about how interesterification is done and its classification
Click Chemistry Presentation - for Department of Chemistry, University of Mi...Aswin Garimalla
This document provides an overview of click chemistry, including:
1. Click chemistry involves high-yielding reactions like cycloadditions that are modular and generate few byproducts.
2. Examples of click reactions discussed include the copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition, additions to olefins and strained rings, and protecting group chemistry.
3. Applications of click chemistry discussed include bioconjugation, materials science, drug discovery, and multi-component reactions.
This document discusses different types of catalysis including homogeneous catalysis, heterogeneous catalysis, and enzyme catalysis. Homogeneous catalysis involves catalysts and reactants in the same phase, while heterogeneous catalysis involves catalysts in a different phase than the reactants. Enzyme catalysis is biologically important and involves enzymes acting as highly specific catalysts within organisms. The mechanisms of these catalysis types and examples such as hydrogenation reactions and catalytic converters are also described.
This document discusses optimization of biodiesel production through transesterification. Biodiesel is defined as mono-alkyl esters derived from vegetable oils and animal fats that are non-toxic and biodegradable. Transesterification is commonly used to reduce the viscosity of vegetable oils for use in diesel engines. The document outlines experiments conducted using sunflower oil, methanol, and potassium hydroxide in a reactor. Response surface methodology was used to optimize the transesterification reaction conditions. The results showed temperature, methanol to oil ratio, and catalyst concentration most significantly affected biodiesel yield. Biodiesel produced was of good quality and could serve as an alternative to petro-diesel.
Oxidative Rancidity in Fats and Oils, Causes and Prevention Sadanand Patel
Fats are one of the very important component of our diet. But they are highly unstable toward atmospheric oxygen and start producing unpleasant smell. These undesirable compounds generated by degradation of fats are very harmful for our health. They are Carcinogenic in nature.
Oxidative Rancidity in Oils and Fats, Causes and PreventionSadanand Patel
1. The document discusses lipid oxidation, the major cause of food spoilage. It outlines the processes of hydrolytic, oxidative, and microbial rancidity.
2. Oxidative rancidity can occur through photo-oxidation, auto-oxidation, or enzymatic oxidation. Primary oxidation products include hydroperoxides. Secondary products include aldehydes and ketones.
3. Factors that influence the rate of lipid oxidation include fatty acid composition, pro-oxidants like metals, moisture, oxygen concentration, and antioxidants. Various methods to measure oxidative rancidity are also described.
This document discusses various aspects of catalysis from a reference book. It describes promoters as substances that increase the activity of a catalyst without being catalysts themselves. Catalytic poisoning occurs when impurities destroy catalyst activity. Auto-catalysis is when a reaction product acts as its own catalyst. Negative catalysis or inhibition refers to when a catalyst reduces a reaction rate. Activation energy is the minimum energy needed for a chemical reaction to occur, and catalysts provide an alternative reaction pathway to lower this energy.
Katsuki Sharpless Asymmetric Epoxidation and its Synthetic ApplicationsKeshav Singh
The Sharpless epoxidation reaction allows for the asymmetric epoxidation of allylic alcohols. It uses tert-butyl hydroperoxide as the oxidizing agent, titanium tetra isopropoxide as the catalyst, and a chiral tartrate ester ligand such as diethyl tartrate. The tartrate ligand provides chirality and controls the face selectivity of the epoxidation reaction. The Sharpless epoxidation has been widely used in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals, natural products, and other chemicals.
Comparative study of the oxidative stabilities of palm oil and olive oil.Alexander Decker
This document compares the oxidative stabilities of palm oil and olive oil. Palm oil and olive oil samples were subjected to methylene blue sensitized photoxidation to induce oxidation. Progress of the reaction was monitored by thin layer chromatography, which showed that oxidation products formed in palm oil after 13 hours of irradiation and 10 hours for olive oil, indicating olive oil's lower oxidative stability. Analysis of the reaction mixtures and isolated oxidation products confirmed the formation of hydroperoxides during sensitization. Proton NMR spectra showed reductions in peaks corresponding to easily oxidizable groups in the oils, with more pronounced changes in olive oil, reflecting its higher level of unsaturated fatty acids and lower oxidative stability compared to palm oil.
The document discusses alternatives to critical materials in catalysis and photovoltaics from an industrial perspective. It outlines strategic and critical materials and issues with predicting future demand. Finding alternatives for catalysts faces challenges due to the small amounts of metal needed but large costs of ligands. Rhodium price volatility also impacts refinery catalyst costs. Opportunities exist in emissions catalysis, hydrosilylation, and acetic acid synthesis though some processes may not be suitable for alternatives. Olefin hydroformylation is a large application of homogeneous catalysis using rhodium.
This document provides an introduction to catalysis. It begins by defining catalysis as the acceleration of a chemical reaction by a substance that is not consumed by the reaction and remains chemically unchanged. The document then discusses the history of catalysis, including its discovery in the 19th century and important early contributors like Berzelius, Ostwald, Haber, and Sabatier. It outlines the main types of catalysis as homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis. Key characteristics of catalytic reactions are also summarized, such as catalysts remaining unchanged, being specific to certain reactions, and not affecting equilibrium. The document concludes by discussing some major applications of catalysis in industries like petroleum production, chemical synthesis, and pollution control.
Polymer-Supported N-Tritylaziridinyl(diphenyl)methanol as an Effective Cataly...Peter ten Holte
This document describes the use of a polymer-supported N-tritylaziridinyl(diphenyl)methanol catalyst (2) for the enantioselective addition of diethylzinc to various aldehydes. Catalyst 2 was synthesized by attaching an aziridinyl alcohol to a polymer support. It catalyzed the addition of diethylzinc to aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes with high yields (up to 92%) and enantioselectivities (up to 97% ee). The catalyst could be recycled through multiple reaction cycles with retention of high enantioselectivity (95-96% ee).
This document discusses click chemistry, which refers to chemical reactions that are modular, high-yielding, and generate byproducts that can be removed easily. The classic example is the copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction. Characteristics of click chemistry reactions include being simple, selective, stereospecific, and having readily available starting materials. Common types of click reactions discussed are cycloaddition, nucleophilic ring-opening, carbonyl condensation, and addition of carbon-carbon multiple bonds. The document gives examples of applications for click chemistry in fields like DNA, self-assembly, surface modification, and biomedicine.
This document reviews cotton seed oil as a source for biodiesel. It defines biodiesel and describes the transesterification process used to produce biodiesel from cotton seed oil. The experimental setup is shown and results presented on the optimization of variables like catalyst amount, temperature, and time on biodiesel production. Performance tests on the biodiesel show reductions in emissions but higher NOx compared to diesel. Advantages of biodiesel include reduced dependency on imports and lower emissions.
1) The document describes an experiment to test the properties of lipids using various solvents and coconut oil.
2) The results show that coconut oil is soluble in nonpolar solvents like chloroform and ether, but not polar solvents like water or dilute acid due to its nonpolar nature.
3) Additional tests are described to observe the evaporation rates of different oils and their reactions to heat and chemicals.
Filtration and water reduction of methyl ester for insulation purposeTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
An attempt to develop a monoester type insulating oil, especially methyl ester is being conducted
and the current results after conducting two kinds of treatment, namely, filtration and water reduction are
reported in this paper. Five different samples were prepared from methyl ester oil based on their melting
point. The important properties of oil samples such as breakdown voltage, viscosity, water content, acidity,
and density were tested, and are evaluated based on the standard specification of natural ester used for
the transformer, ASTM D-6871. Another important property, i.e. oxidation stability was also tested and is
evaluated by comparing the corresponding result of mineral oil. It is found that the breakdown voltage,
the viscosity and the relative density of the oil fulfill the requirements specified by the standard, whereas
other properties like water content, acidity and oxidation stability need further improvement.
Humate effect on oil-oxidizing activity of hydrocarbon-oxidizing microorganismsIJERA Editor
The effect of humic substances on the activity of hydrocarbon-oxidizing microorganisms is studied. It is shown
that sodium humate, aminogumic and sulfogumic acids did not have a negative impact on the growth of oiloxidizing
microorganisms. Introduction of sodium humate in the culture medium stimulated the destructive
activity of oil-oxidizing microorganisms. At its addition the degree of oil degradation was 72.5-84.5%, and atits
absence – 70.7-78.3%.
The document discusses the principles and characteristics of catalysts. It begins by defining catalysts as substances that accelerate chemical reactions by lowering activation energy without being consumed. It then discusses several key points about catalysts, including that they: (1) provide alternative reaction pathways with lower activation energies; (2) are regenerated after reactions and only small amounts are needed; and (3) do not change chemical equilibrium but help reactions reach equilibrium faster. The document also outlines general characteristics of catalysts such as specificity, inability to initiate reactions, and achieving maximum activity at an optimum temperature.
The document discusses biodiesel production technologies. It begins by defining biodiesel as the monoalkyl esters produced from vegetable or animal fats and oils via a chemical process. It then discusses various feedstocks used, including plant and animal oils and fats. It provides details on the traditional and laboratory scale production processes, which involve esterification and transesterification reactions using chemical catalysts or biocatalysts like lipase. The document concludes by listing standards and providing examples of biodiesel yields from different oil feedstocks.
This slide completely describes you about the stuff include in it and also everything about chemical engineering. Fluid Mechanics. Thermodynamics. Mass Transfer Chemical Engineering. Energy Engineering, Mass Transfer 2, Heat Transfer,
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Biodiesel production via transesterification of palm oilKátia Gabriel
The document summarizes research into producing biodiesel via transesterification of palm oil using sodium hydroxide loaded onto alumina (NaOH/Al2O3) catalysts. NaOH/Al2O3 catalysts were prepared by impregnating alumina with sodium hydroxide solutions then calcining. The catalysts were characterized and found to have basic sites suitable for transesterification. Parameters like methanol to oil ratio, catalyst amount, temperature and time were varied to determine optimum conditions. With the optimum conditions, a 99% conversion of palm oil to biodiesel was achieved.
This document discusses different types of catalysis including homogeneous catalysis, heterogeneous catalysis, and enzyme catalysis. Homogeneous catalysis involves catalysts and reactants in the same phase, while heterogeneous catalysis involves catalysts in a different phase than the reactants. Enzyme catalysis is biologically important and involves enzymes acting as highly specific catalysts within organisms. The mechanisms of these catalysis types and examples such as hydrogenation reactions and catalytic converters are also described.
This document discusses optimization of biodiesel production through transesterification. Biodiesel is defined as mono-alkyl esters derived from vegetable oils and animal fats that are non-toxic and biodegradable. Transesterification is commonly used to reduce the viscosity of vegetable oils for use in diesel engines. The document outlines experiments conducted using sunflower oil, methanol, and potassium hydroxide in a reactor. Response surface methodology was used to optimize the transesterification reaction conditions. The results showed temperature, methanol to oil ratio, and catalyst concentration most significantly affected biodiesel yield. Biodiesel produced was of good quality and could serve as an alternative to petro-diesel.
Oxidative Rancidity in Fats and Oils, Causes and Prevention Sadanand Patel
Fats are one of the very important component of our diet. But they are highly unstable toward atmospheric oxygen and start producing unpleasant smell. These undesirable compounds generated by degradation of fats are very harmful for our health. They are Carcinogenic in nature.
Oxidative Rancidity in Oils and Fats, Causes and PreventionSadanand Patel
1. The document discusses lipid oxidation, the major cause of food spoilage. It outlines the processes of hydrolytic, oxidative, and microbial rancidity.
2. Oxidative rancidity can occur through photo-oxidation, auto-oxidation, or enzymatic oxidation. Primary oxidation products include hydroperoxides. Secondary products include aldehydes and ketones.
3. Factors that influence the rate of lipid oxidation include fatty acid composition, pro-oxidants like metals, moisture, oxygen concentration, and antioxidants. Various methods to measure oxidative rancidity are also described.
This document discusses various aspects of catalysis from a reference book. It describes promoters as substances that increase the activity of a catalyst without being catalysts themselves. Catalytic poisoning occurs when impurities destroy catalyst activity. Auto-catalysis is when a reaction product acts as its own catalyst. Negative catalysis or inhibition refers to when a catalyst reduces a reaction rate. Activation energy is the minimum energy needed for a chemical reaction to occur, and catalysts provide an alternative reaction pathway to lower this energy.
Katsuki Sharpless Asymmetric Epoxidation and its Synthetic ApplicationsKeshav Singh
The Sharpless epoxidation reaction allows for the asymmetric epoxidation of allylic alcohols. It uses tert-butyl hydroperoxide as the oxidizing agent, titanium tetra isopropoxide as the catalyst, and a chiral tartrate ester ligand such as diethyl tartrate. The tartrate ligand provides chirality and controls the face selectivity of the epoxidation reaction. The Sharpless epoxidation has been widely used in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals, natural products, and other chemicals.
Comparative study of the oxidative stabilities of palm oil and olive oil.Alexander Decker
This document compares the oxidative stabilities of palm oil and olive oil. Palm oil and olive oil samples were subjected to methylene blue sensitized photoxidation to induce oxidation. Progress of the reaction was monitored by thin layer chromatography, which showed that oxidation products formed in palm oil after 13 hours of irradiation and 10 hours for olive oil, indicating olive oil's lower oxidative stability. Analysis of the reaction mixtures and isolated oxidation products confirmed the formation of hydroperoxides during sensitization. Proton NMR spectra showed reductions in peaks corresponding to easily oxidizable groups in the oils, with more pronounced changes in olive oil, reflecting its higher level of unsaturated fatty acids and lower oxidative stability compared to palm oil.
The document discusses alternatives to critical materials in catalysis and photovoltaics from an industrial perspective. It outlines strategic and critical materials and issues with predicting future demand. Finding alternatives for catalysts faces challenges due to the small amounts of metal needed but large costs of ligands. Rhodium price volatility also impacts refinery catalyst costs. Opportunities exist in emissions catalysis, hydrosilylation, and acetic acid synthesis though some processes may not be suitable for alternatives. Olefin hydroformylation is a large application of homogeneous catalysis using rhodium.
This document provides an introduction to catalysis. It begins by defining catalysis as the acceleration of a chemical reaction by a substance that is not consumed by the reaction and remains chemically unchanged. The document then discusses the history of catalysis, including its discovery in the 19th century and important early contributors like Berzelius, Ostwald, Haber, and Sabatier. It outlines the main types of catalysis as homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis. Key characteristics of catalytic reactions are also summarized, such as catalysts remaining unchanged, being specific to certain reactions, and not affecting equilibrium. The document concludes by discussing some major applications of catalysis in industries like petroleum production, chemical synthesis, and pollution control.
Polymer-Supported N-Tritylaziridinyl(diphenyl)methanol as an Effective Cataly...Peter ten Holte
This document describes the use of a polymer-supported N-tritylaziridinyl(diphenyl)methanol catalyst (2) for the enantioselective addition of diethylzinc to various aldehydes. Catalyst 2 was synthesized by attaching an aziridinyl alcohol to a polymer support. It catalyzed the addition of diethylzinc to aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes with high yields (up to 92%) and enantioselectivities (up to 97% ee). The catalyst could be recycled through multiple reaction cycles with retention of high enantioselectivity (95-96% ee).
This document discusses click chemistry, which refers to chemical reactions that are modular, high-yielding, and generate byproducts that can be removed easily. The classic example is the copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction. Characteristics of click chemistry reactions include being simple, selective, stereospecific, and having readily available starting materials. Common types of click reactions discussed are cycloaddition, nucleophilic ring-opening, carbonyl condensation, and addition of carbon-carbon multiple bonds. The document gives examples of applications for click chemistry in fields like DNA, self-assembly, surface modification, and biomedicine.
This document reviews cotton seed oil as a source for biodiesel. It defines biodiesel and describes the transesterification process used to produce biodiesel from cotton seed oil. The experimental setup is shown and results presented on the optimization of variables like catalyst amount, temperature, and time on biodiesel production. Performance tests on the biodiesel show reductions in emissions but higher NOx compared to diesel. Advantages of biodiesel include reduced dependency on imports and lower emissions.
1) The document describes an experiment to test the properties of lipids using various solvents and coconut oil.
2) The results show that coconut oil is soluble in nonpolar solvents like chloroform and ether, but not polar solvents like water or dilute acid due to its nonpolar nature.
3) Additional tests are described to observe the evaporation rates of different oils and their reactions to heat and chemicals.
Filtration and water reduction of methyl ester for insulation purposeTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
An attempt to develop a monoester type insulating oil, especially methyl ester is being conducted
and the current results after conducting two kinds of treatment, namely, filtration and water reduction are
reported in this paper. Five different samples were prepared from methyl ester oil based on their melting
point. The important properties of oil samples such as breakdown voltage, viscosity, water content, acidity,
and density were tested, and are evaluated based on the standard specification of natural ester used for
the transformer, ASTM D-6871. Another important property, i.e. oxidation stability was also tested and is
evaluated by comparing the corresponding result of mineral oil. It is found that the breakdown voltage,
the viscosity and the relative density of the oil fulfill the requirements specified by the standard, whereas
other properties like water content, acidity and oxidation stability need further improvement.
Humate effect on oil-oxidizing activity of hydrocarbon-oxidizing microorganismsIJERA Editor
The effect of humic substances on the activity of hydrocarbon-oxidizing microorganisms is studied. It is shown
that sodium humate, aminogumic and sulfogumic acids did not have a negative impact on the growth of oiloxidizing
microorganisms. Introduction of sodium humate in the culture medium stimulated the destructive
activity of oil-oxidizing microorganisms. At its addition the degree of oil degradation was 72.5-84.5%, and atits
absence – 70.7-78.3%.
The document discusses the principles and characteristics of catalysts. It begins by defining catalysts as substances that accelerate chemical reactions by lowering activation energy without being consumed. It then discusses several key points about catalysts, including that they: (1) provide alternative reaction pathways with lower activation energies; (2) are regenerated after reactions and only small amounts are needed; and (3) do not change chemical equilibrium but help reactions reach equilibrium faster. The document also outlines general characteristics of catalysts such as specificity, inability to initiate reactions, and achieving maximum activity at an optimum temperature.
The document discusses biodiesel production technologies. It begins by defining biodiesel as the monoalkyl esters produced from vegetable or animal fats and oils via a chemical process. It then discusses various feedstocks used, including plant and animal oils and fats. It provides details on the traditional and laboratory scale production processes, which involve esterification and transesterification reactions using chemical catalysts or biocatalysts like lipase. The document concludes by listing standards and providing examples of biodiesel yields from different oil feedstocks.
This slide completely describes you about the stuff include in it and also everything about chemical engineering. Fluid Mechanics. Thermodynamics. Mass Transfer Chemical Engineering. Energy Engineering, Mass Transfer 2, Heat Transfer,
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Biodiesel production via transesterification of palm oilKátia Gabriel
The document summarizes research into producing biodiesel via transesterification of palm oil using sodium hydroxide loaded onto alumina (NaOH/Al2O3) catalysts. NaOH/Al2O3 catalysts were prepared by impregnating alumina with sodium hydroxide solutions then calcining. The catalysts were characterized and found to have basic sites suitable for transesterification. Parameters like methanol to oil ratio, catalyst amount, temperature and time were varied to determine optimum conditions. With the optimum conditions, a 99% conversion of palm oil to biodiesel was achieved.
Waste frying oil can be converted into biodiesel through a two-step process of esterification and transesterification. In esterification, free fatty acids in waste oil are reacted with methanol to form methyl esters and water. Then in transesterification, triglycerides are reacted with methanol in the presence of a catalyst like potassium hydroxide to form biodiesel and glycerol. The study found maximum biodiesel yields of 98% when using a 1.5% KOH catalyst at 64°C reaction temperature. While the biodiesel met Indonesian standards for density and flash point, its viscosity was higher than conventional diesel fuel.
Supercritical fluid technology in biodiesel productionAlexander Decker
This document reviews the use of supercritical fluid technology for biodiesel production as a sustainable alternative to conventional catalytic reactions. Supercritical fluid processes produce biodiesel through transesterification of vegetable oils and fats without the need for catalysts, making the process simpler and potentially more cost-effective. However, concerns remain regarding the large amounts of energy required to conduct the supercritical reactions at high temperatures and pressures. Overall, while supercritical fluid technology offers advantages over catalytic methods, challenges around energy efficiency need to be addressed for it to become a viable sustainable technology for biodiesel production.
11.supercritical fluid technology in biodiesel productionAlexander Decker
This document reviews the use of supercritical fluid technology for biodiesel production as a sustainable alternative to conventional catalytic reactions. Supercritical fluid processes produce biodiesel through transesterification of vegetable oils and fats without the need for catalysts, making the process simpler and potentially more cost-effective. However, concerns remain regarding the large amounts of energy required to conduct the supercritical reactions at high temperatures and pressures. Overall, while supercritical fluid technology offers advantages over catalytic methods, challenges around energy efficiency need to be addressed for it to become a viable sustainable technology for biodiesel production.
The document discusses optimization of biodiesel production from sunflower oil using response surface methodology. It notes that biodiesel production through transesterification of triglycerides with alcohol has advantages over petroleum-based diesel. Response surface methodology was applied to determine the optimum molar ratio of alcohol to oil, reaction temperature, and catalyst concentration for maximum biodiesel yield. The model showed these three factors significantly affected yield. Under optimal conditions, a 98.181% biodiesel yield could be achieved. The resulting biodiesel had properties comparable to petroleum-based diesel and could serve as a suitable alternative fuel.
Vegetable oil can be used to produce biodiesel through a process called transesterification. Transesterification reduces the viscosity of vegetable oils to make them suitable for use in diesel engines. It involves a series of chemical reactions that convert triglycerides in vegetable oil into fatty acid methyl esters. Previous studies have determined optimal conditions for transesterification, such as a molar ratio of 6.825:1 alcohol to oil, a temperature of 48°C, and a catalyst concentration of 0.679wt% KOH, which can yield 98.181% biodiesel.
Vegetable oil can be used to produce biodiesel through a process called transesterification. Transesterification reduces the viscosity of vegetable oils to make them suitable for use in diesel engines. It involves a series of chemical reactions that convert triglycerides in vegetable oil into fatty acid methyl esters. Previous studies have determined optimal conditions for transesterification, such as a molar ratio of 6.825:1 alcohol to oil, a temperature of 48°C, and a catalyst concentration of 0.679wt% KOH, which can yield 98.181% biodiesel.
Triacylglycerols produced by plants are one of the most energy-rich and abundant forms of reduced carbon available from nature. Given their chemical similarities, plant oils represent a logical substitute for conventional diesel, a non-renewable energy source. However, as plant oils are too viscous for use in modern diesel engines, they are converted to fatty acid esters. Apart from seed oil vegetative tissue is potential source as bio mass for biofuel production, taking 15 tonnes per hectare as an average dry matter yield for a perennial grass, an oil content of 20– 25% by weight will produce about 3400 l of biodiesel (Heaton et al., 2004). There is growing interest in engineering green biomass to expand the production of plant oils as feed and biofuels. Here, we show that PHOSPHOLIPID: DIACYLGLYCEROL ACYLTRANSFERASE1 (PDAT1) is a critical enzyme involved in triacylglycerol (TAG) synthesis in leaves. Overexpression of PDAT1 increases leaf TAG accumulation, leading to oil droplet overexpansion through fusion. Ectopic expression of oleosin promotes the clustering of small oil droplets. Coexpression of PDAT1 with oleosin boosts leaf TAG content by up to 6.4% of the dry weight without affecting membrane lipid composition and plant growth. PDAT1 overexpression stimulates fatty acid synthesis (FAS) and increases fatty acid flux toward the prokaryotic glycerolipid pathway (Julian at al..2013). First, an Arabidopsis thaliana gene diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT) coding for a key enzyme in triacylglycerol (TAG) biosynthesis, was expressed in tobacco under the control of a strong ribulose-biphosphate carboxylase small subunit promoter. This modification led to up to a 20-fold increase in TAG accumulation in tobacco leaves and translated into an overall of about a twofold increase in extracted fatty acids (FA) up to 5.8% of dry biomass in Nicotiana tabacum cv Wisconsin, and up to 6% in high-sugar tobacco variety NC-55 ( Andrianovet al 2010). Therefore Biotechnology has important and perhaps critical part to play in large-scale development of Biodiesel.
Structural properties of vegetable oil thermosets effect of crosslinkers, mo...吉成 朴
This document discusses structural properties of vegetable oil thermosets and the effect of crosslinkers, modifiers, and oxidative aging. Specifically, it examines tung oil-based biopolymers prepared using different comonomers (styrene, divinylbenzene, methyl ester of tung oil) or a modifier (acrylated epoxidized soybean oil). It analyzes the chemical aging of the fatty acid segments through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, dynamic mechanical analysis, positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. The results show values for glass transition temperature, storage moduli, tanδ, and free nanohole volumes change over one year of aging at room temperature and
This document summarizes a study on producing biodiesel from waste cooking oil. Used cooking oil was collected from restaurants and treated to reduce acidity using a resin. The treated oil was then converted to biodiesel using a transesterification reaction with methanol and a catalyst. Analysis showed the biodiesel produced contained fatty acid methyl esters from palmitate, linoleate, oleate, and stearate. Yields from the reactions ranged from 39% to 90%, demonstrating waste cooking oil can successfully be converted to biodiesel.
This document provides an overview of biodiesel production methods and their impact on emissions. It discusses the advantages of heterogeneous catalysts over homogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production. The document then reviews several studies on biodiesel production from waste cooking oil using transesterification with various catalysts and production methods. Key findings from these studies include higher biodiesel yields from transesterification at 60°C and reductions in emissions like CO and smoke when using biodiesel blends compared to diesel fuel. The document concludes by stating that biodiesel production from waste oils helps address issues of decreasing oil reserves, environmental pollution, and high fuel prices.
Cosolvent Transesterification of Jatropha Curcas Seed OilZX7
This document presents a study on the cosolvent transesterification of Jatropha curcas seed oil. The key findings are:
1) Jatropha oil was characterized and found to contain mainly palmitic, oleic, linoleic and stearic acids.
2) Tetrahydrofuran was used as the cosolvent to create a single miscible phase for the transesterification reaction between Jatropha oil and methanol.
3) Optimum conditions for transesterification were found to be 40°C, 200 rpm, 4:1 methanol-to-oil ratio, 1:1 cosolvent-to-methanol ratio, 0.5
This document describes a study on the production and characterization of biodiesel from cottonseed oil. The researchers investigated various parameters that affect biodiesel yield, including methanol to oil ratio, catalyst type and concentration, and reaction time. The highest biodiesel yield of 92% was obtained using a 1:1 methanol to oil ratio, 0.75% NaOH catalyst, and 150 minutes reaction time. The properties of the produced biodiesel, such as viscosity, flash point, carbon residue and specific gravity, were tested and found to meet ASTM standards for biodiesel.
This document discusses various methods for producing biodiesel as an alternative fuel. It describes biodiesel production from algae through oil extraction from algae, transesterification with methanol and sodium hydroxide catalyst, and separation of biodiesel. Biodiesel can also be produced from jatropha through oil extraction from seeds, transesterification, and from mahua through a two-stage esterification and transesterification process. Additionally, biodiesel can be produced from used cooking oil through collection, filtration, and transesterification. The document examines the advantages and disadvantages of different biodiesel production methods.
This research article describes a study that produced bio-oil from a mixture of wastes through pyrolysis and thermal cracking in the presence of hydrogen. Four bio-oil fractions were obtained and analyzed: two from pyrolysis alone (OPH and OPL) and two from pyrolysis followed by thermal cracking (OCH and OCL). The fractions obtained from cracking contained lower molecular weight compounds and fewer oxygenated species compared to those from pyrolysis alone. Over 300 compounds were tentatively identified in the fractions using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The fractions obtained from cracking were composed primarily of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, similar to petroleum-based naphtha.
This document examines the effect of temperature on the yield of methyl ester (biodiesel) produced from palm kernel oil and groundnut oil through base-catalyzed transesterification. The maximum yield for palm kernel oil was 87.67% at 65°C, while groundnut oil yield peaked at 82.5% at 50°C. Yield generally increased with temperature up to these points, then decreased due to increased miscibility. Palm kernel oil produced a higher average yield than groundnut oil under the conditions tested. The results show that Nigerian palm kernel and groundnut oils can be effective feedstocks for biodiesel production.
This document discusses optimizing biodiesel production from sunflower oil using response surface methodology. It analyzes how temperature, catalyst concentration, and molar ratio of methanol to oil affect biodiesel yield through a central composite design experiment. The maximum predicted biodiesel yield of 98.181% was found at 48°C, a methanol to oil ratio of 6.825:1, and a catalyst concentration of 0.679 wt%. Response surface analysis showed yield increases with temperature up to the methanol boiling point, but decreases above it as methanol evaporates. A higher molar ratio leads to soap formation through side reactions.
Dandelion Hashtable: beyond billion requests per second on a commodity serverAntonios Katsarakis
This slide deck presents DLHT, a concurrent in-memory hashtable. Despite efforts to optimize hashtables, that go as far as sacrificing core functionality, state-of-the-art designs still incur multiple memory accesses per request and block request processing in three cases. First, most hashtables block while waiting for data to be retrieved from memory. Second, open-addressing designs, which represent the current state-of-the-art, either cannot free index slots on deletes or must block all requests to do so. Third, index resizes block every request until all objects are copied to the new index. Defying folklore wisdom, DLHT forgoes open-addressing and adopts a fully-featured and memory-aware closed-addressing design based on bounded cache-line-chaining. This design offers lock-free index operations and deletes that free slots instantly, (2) completes most requests with a single memory access, (3) utilizes software prefetching to hide memory latencies, and (4) employs a novel non-blocking and parallel resizing. In a commodity server and a memory-resident workload, DLHT surpasses 1.6B requests per second and provides 3.5x (12x) the throughput of the state-of-the-art closed-addressing (open-addressing) resizable hashtable on Gets (Deletes).
In the realm of cybersecurity, offensive security practices act as a critical shield. By simulating real-world attacks in a controlled environment, these techniques expose vulnerabilities before malicious actors can exploit them. This proactive approach allows manufacturers to identify and fix weaknesses, significantly enhancing system security.
This presentation delves into the development of a system designed to mimic Galileo's Open Service signal using software-defined radio (SDR) technology. We'll begin with a foundational overview of both Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) and the intricacies of digital signal processing.
The presentation culminates in a live demonstration. We'll showcase the manipulation of Galileo's Open Service pilot signal, simulating an attack on various software and hardware systems. This practical demonstration serves to highlight the potential consequences of unaddressed vulnerabilities, emphasizing the importance of offensive security practices in safeguarding critical infrastructure.
Monitoring and Managing Anomaly Detection on OpenShift.pdfTosin Akinosho
Monitoring and Managing Anomaly Detection on OpenShift
Overview
Dive into the world of anomaly detection on edge devices with our comprehensive hands-on tutorial. This SlideShare presentation will guide you through the entire process, from data collection and model training to edge deployment and real-time monitoring. Perfect for those looking to implement robust anomaly detection systems on resource-constrained IoT/edge devices.
Key Topics Covered
1. Introduction to Anomaly Detection
- Understand the fundamentals of anomaly detection and its importance in identifying unusual behavior or failures in systems.
2. Understanding Edge (IoT)
- Learn about edge computing and IoT, and how they enable real-time data processing and decision-making at the source.
3. What is ArgoCD?
- Discover ArgoCD, a declarative, GitOps continuous delivery tool for Kubernetes, and its role in deploying applications on edge devices.
4. Deployment Using ArgoCD for Edge Devices
- Step-by-step guide on deploying anomaly detection models on edge devices using ArgoCD.
5. Introduction to Apache Kafka and S3
- Explore Apache Kafka for real-time data streaming and Amazon S3 for scalable storage solutions.
6. Viewing Kafka Messages in the Data Lake
- Learn how to view and analyze Kafka messages stored in a data lake for better insights.
7. What is Prometheus?
- Get to know Prometheus, an open-source monitoring and alerting toolkit, and its application in monitoring edge devices.
8. Monitoring Application Metrics with Prometheus
- Detailed instructions on setting up Prometheus to monitor the performance and health of your anomaly detection system.
9. What is Camel K?
- Introduction to Camel K, a lightweight integration framework built on Apache Camel, designed for Kubernetes.
10. Configuring Camel K Integrations for Data Pipelines
- Learn how to configure Camel K for seamless data pipeline integrations in your anomaly detection workflow.
11. What is a Jupyter Notebook?
- Overview of Jupyter Notebooks, an open-source web application for creating and sharing documents with live code, equations, visualizations, and narrative text.
12. Jupyter Notebooks with Code Examples
- Hands-on examples and code snippets in Jupyter Notebooks to help you implement and test anomaly detection models.
Freshworks Rethinks NoSQL for Rapid Scaling & Cost-EfficiencyScyllaDB
Freshworks creates AI-boosted business software that helps employees work more efficiently and effectively. Managing data across multiple RDBMS and NoSQL databases was already a challenge at their current scale. To prepare for 10X growth, they knew it was time to rethink their database strategy. Learn how they architected a solution that would simplify scaling while keeping costs under control.
Fueling AI with Great Data with Airbyte WebinarZilliz
This talk will focus on how to collect data from a variety of sources, leveraging this data for RAG and other GenAI use cases, and finally charting your course to productionalization.
Driving Business Innovation: Latest Generative AI Advancements & Success StorySafe Software
Are you ready to revolutionize how you handle data? Join us for a webinar where we’ll bring you up to speed with the latest advancements in Generative AI technology and discover how leveraging FME with tools from giants like Google Gemini, Amazon, and Microsoft OpenAI can supercharge your workflow efficiency.
During the hour, we’ll take you through:
Guest Speaker Segment with Hannah Barrington: Dive into the world of dynamic real estate marketing with Hannah, the Marketing Manager at Workspace Group. Hear firsthand how their team generates engaging descriptions for thousands of office units by integrating diverse data sources—from PDF floorplans to web pages—using FME transformers, like OpenAIVisionConnector and AnthropicVisionConnector. This use case will show you how GenAI can streamline content creation for marketing across the board.
Ollama Use Case: Learn how Scenario Specialist Dmitri Bagh has utilized Ollama within FME to input data, create custom models, and enhance security protocols. This segment will include demos to illustrate the full capabilities of FME in AI-driven processes.
Custom AI Models: Discover how to leverage FME to build personalized AI models using your data. Whether it’s populating a model with local data for added security or integrating public AI tools, find out how FME facilitates a versatile and secure approach to AI.
We’ll wrap up with a live Q&A session where you can engage with our experts on your specific use cases, and learn more about optimizing your data workflows with AI.
This webinar is ideal for professionals seeking to harness the power of AI within their data management systems while ensuring high levels of customization and security. Whether you're a novice or an expert, gain actionable insights and strategies to elevate your data processes. Join us to see how FME and AI can revolutionize how you work with data!
A Comprehensive Guide to DeFi Development Services in 2024Intelisync
DeFi represents a paradigm shift in the financial industry. Instead of relying on traditional, centralized institutions like banks, DeFi leverages blockchain technology to create a decentralized network of financial services. This means that financial transactions can occur directly between parties, without intermediaries, using smart contracts on platforms like Ethereum.
In 2024, we are witnessing an explosion of new DeFi projects and protocols, each pushing the boundaries of what’s possible in finance.
In summary, DeFi in 2024 is not just a trend; it’s a revolution that democratizes finance, enhances security and transparency, and fosters continuous innovation. As we proceed through this presentation, we'll explore the various components and services of DeFi in detail, shedding light on how they are transforming the financial landscape.
At Intelisync, we specialize in providing comprehensive DeFi development services tailored to meet the unique needs of our clients. From smart contract development to dApp creation and security audits, we ensure that your DeFi project is built with innovation, security, and scalability in mind. Trust Intelisync to guide you through the intricate landscape of decentralized finance and unlock the full potential of blockchain technology.
Ready to take your DeFi project to the next level? Partner with Intelisync for expert DeFi development services today!
For the full video of this presentation, please visit: https://www.edge-ai-vision.com/2024/06/temporal-event-neural-networks-a-more-efficient-alternative-to-the-transformer-a-presentation-from-brainchip/
Chris Jones, Director of Product Management at BrainChip , presents the “Temporal Event Neural Networks: A More Efficient Alternative to the Transformer” tutorial at the May 2024 Embedded Vision Summit.
The expansion of AI services necessitates enhanced computational capabilities on edge devices. Temporal Event Neural Networks (TENNs), developed by BrainChip, represent a novel and highly efficient state-space network. TENNs demonstrate exceptional proficiency in handling multi-dimensional streaming data, facilitating advancements in object detection, action recognition, speech enhancement and language model/sequence generation. Through the utilization of polynomial-based continuous convolutions, TENNs streamline models, expedite training processes and significantly diminish memory requirements, achieving notable reductions of up to 50x in parameters and 5,000x in energy consumption compared to prevailing methodologies like transformers.
Integration with BrainChip’s Akida neuromorphic hardware IP further enhances TENNs’ capabilities, enabling the realization of highly capable, portable and passively cooled edge devices. This presentation delves into the technical innovations underlying TENNs, presents real-world benchmarks, and elucidates how this cutting-edge approach is positioned to revolutionize edge AI across diverse applications.
5th LF Energy Power Grid Model Meet-up SlidesDanBrown980551
5th Power Grid Model Meet-up
It is with great pleasure that we extend to you an invitation to the 5th Power Grid Model Meet-up, scheduled for 6th June 2024. This event will adopt a hybrid format, allowing participants to join us either through an online Mircosoft Teams session or in person at TU/e located at Den Dolech 2, Eindhoven, Netherlands. The meet-up will be hosted by Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), a research university specializing in engineering science & technology.
Power Grid Model
The global energy transition is placing new and unprecedented demands on Distribution System Operators (DSOs). Alongside upgrades to grid capacity, processes such as digitization, capacity optimization, and congestion management are becoming vital for delivering reliable services.
Power Grid Model is an open source project from Linux Foundation Energy and provides a calculation engine that is increasingly essential for DSOs. It offers a standards-based foundation enabling real-time power systems analysis, simulations of electrical power grids, and sophisticated what-if analysis. In addition, it enables in-depth studies and analysis of the electrical power grid’s behavior and performance. This comprehensive model incorporates essential factors such as power generation capacity, electrical losses, voltage levels, power flows, and system stability.
Power Grid Model is currently being applied in a wide variety of use cases, including grid planning, expansion, reliability, and congestion studies. It can also help in analyzing the impact of renewable energy integration, assessing the effects of disturbances or faults, and developing strategies for grid control and optimization.
What to expect
For the upcoming meetup we are organizing, we have an exciting lineup of activities planned:
-Insightful presentations covering two practical applications of the Power Grid Model.
-An update on the latest advancements in Power Grid -Model technology during the first and second quarters of 2024.
-An interactive brainstorming session to discuss and propose new feature requests.
-An opportunity to connect with fellow Power Grid Model enthusiasts and users.
Best 20 SEO Techniques To Improve Website Visibility In SERPPixlogix Infotech
Boost your website's visibility with proven SEO techniques! Our latest blog dives into essential strategies to enhance your online presence, increase traffic, and rank higher on search engines. From keyword optimization to quality content creation, learn how to make your site stand out in the crowded digital landscape. Discover actionable tips and expert insights to elevate your SEO game.
GraphRAG for Life Science to increase LLM accuracyTomaz Bratanic
GraphRAG for life science domain, where you retriever information from biomedical knowledge graphs using LLMs to increase the accuracy and performance of generated answers
Skybuffer SAM4U tool for SAP license adoptionTatiana Kojar
Manage and optimize your license adoption and consumption with SAM4U, an SAP free customer software asset management tool.
SAM4U, an SAP complimentary software asset management tool for customers, delivers a detailed and well-structured overview of license inventory and usage with a user-friendly interface. We offer a hosted, cost-effective, and performance-optimized SAM4U setup in the Skybuffer Cloud environment. You retain ownership of the system and data, while we manage the ABAP 7.58 infrastructure, ensuring fixed Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) and exceptional services through the SAP Fiori interface.
Ivanti’s Patch Tuesday breakdown goes beyond patching your applications and brings you the intelligence and guidance needed to prioritize where to focus your attention first. Catch early analysis on our Ivanti blog, then join industry expert Chris Goettl for the Patch Tuesday Webinar Event. There we’ll do a deep dive into each of the bulletins and give guidance on the risks associated with the newly-identified vulnerabilities.
Have you ever been confused by the myriad of choices offered by AWS for hosting a website or an API?
Lambda, Elastic Beanstalk, Lightsail, Amplify, S3 (and more!) can each host websites + APIs. But which one should we choose?
Which one is cheapest? Which one is fastest? Which one will scale to meet our needs?
Join me in this session as we dive into each AWS hosting service to determine which one is best for your scenario and explain why!
Trusted Execution Environment for Decentralized Process MiningLucaBarbaro3
Presentation of the paper "Trusted Execution Environment for Decentralized Process Mining" given during the CAiSE 2024 Conference in Cyprus on June 7, 2024.
2. BIODIESEL
Biodiesel, an alternative diesel fuel, is
made from re- newable biological
sources such as vegetable oils and animal
fats. It is biodegradable and nontoxic, has
low emission pro®les and so is
environmentally bene®cial (Krawczyk,
1996).
3. BIODIESEL
Biodiesel has become more attractive recently
because of its environmental benefits and the fact
that it is made from renewable resources. The cost
of biodiesel, however, is the main hurdle to
commercialization of the product. The used
cooking oils are used as raw material, adaption of
continuous transesterification process and
recovery of high quality glycerol from biodiesel by-
product (glycerol) are primary options to be
considered to lower the cost of biodiesel. There
are four primary ways to make biodiesel, direct use
and blending, microemulsions, thermal cracking
(pyrolysis) and transesterification.
4. The production of biodiesel
Direct use and blending
Beginning in 1980, there was considerable
discussion regarding use of vegetable oil as a
fuel. Bartholomew (1981) addressed the
concept of using food for fuel, indicating that
petroleum should be the ``alternative'' fuel
rather than vegetable oil and alcohol being
the alternatives and some form of renewable
energy must begin to take the place of the
non-renewable resources.
The most advanced work with sunflower oil
occurred in South Africa because of the oil
embargo.
5. Caterpillar Brazil, in 1980, used pre-combustion
chamber engines with a mixture of 10% vegetable
oil to maintain total power without any alterations or
adjustments to the engine. At that point, it was not
practical to substitute 100% vegetable oil for diesel
fuel, but a blend of 20% vegetable oil and 80%
diesel fuel was successful. Some short-term
experiments used up to a 50/50 ratio.
The first International Conference on Plant and
Vegetable Oils as fuels was held in Fargo, North
Dakota in August 1982. The primary concerns
discussed were the cost of the fuel, the effects of
vegetable oil fuels on engine performance and
durability and fuel preparation, specifications and
additives. Oil production, oilseed processing and
extraction also were considered in this meeting
(ASAE, 1982).
6. Microemulsions
A microemulsion is defined as a colloidal
equilibrium dispersion of optically isotropic
fluid microstructures with dimensions generally
in the 1±150 nm range formed spontaneously
from two normally immiscible liquids and one
or more ionic or non-ionic amphiphiles
(Schwab et al., 1987).
They can improve spray characteristics by
explosive vaporization of the low boiling
constituents in the micelles (Pryde, 1984).
7. Thermal cracking (pyrolysis)
Pyrolysis, strictly defined, is the conversion
of one substance into another by means
of heat or by heat with the aid of a
catalyst (Sonntag, 1979b).
It involves heating in the absence of air or
oxygen (Sonntag, 1979b) and cleavage
of chemical bonds to yield small
molecules (Weisz et al., 1979).
8. Thermal cracking (pyrolysis)
Pyrolytic chemistry is difficult to
characterize because of the variety of
reaction paths and the variety of reaction
products that may be obtained from the
reactions that occur.
The pyrolyzed material can be vegetable
oils, animal fats, natural fatty acids and
methyl esters of fatty acids.
9. Thermal cracking (pyrolysis)
The pyrolysis of fats has been investigated
for more than 100 years, especially in
those areas of the world that lack
deposits of petroleum (Sonntag, 1979b).
The rest pyrolysis of vegetable oil was
conducted in an attempt to synthesize
petroleum from vegetable oil.
10. Thermal cracking (pyrolysis)
Since World War I, many investigators
have studied the pyrolysis of vegetable
oils to obtain products suitable for fuel.
In 1947, a large scale of thermal cracking
of tung oil calcium soaps was reported
(Chang and Wan, 1947).
11. Tung oil was first saponified with lime and then
thermally cracked to yield a crude oil, which
was refined to produce diesel fuel and small
amounts of gasoline and kerosene. 68 kgs of
the soap from the saponification of tung oil
produced 50 L of crude oil.
Grossley et al. (1962) studied the temperature
effect on the type of products obtained from
heated glycerides.
12. Thermal cracking (pyrolysis)
Short term performances of both ionic
and non-ionic microemulsions of aqueous
ethanol in soybean oil were nearly as
good as that of No. 2 diesel, in spite of the
lower cetane number and energy
content (Goering et al., 1982b).
13. Transesterification
(Alcoholysis)
Transesterification (also called alcoholysis)
is the reaction of a fat or oil with an
alcohol to form esters and glycerol.
A catalyst is usually used to improve the
reaction rate and yield.
Because the reaction is reversible, excess
alcohol is used to shift the equilibrium to
the products side.
14. Transesterification
(Alcoholysis)
Alcohols are primary and secondary
monohydric aliphatic alcohols having 1±8
carbon atoms (Sprules and Price, 1950).
Among the alcohols that can be used in the
transesterification process are methanol,
ethanol, propanol, butanol and amyl alcohol.
Methanol and ethanol are used most
frequently, especially methanol because of its
low cost and its physical and chemical
advantages (polar and shortest chain
alcohol). It can quickly react with triglycerides
and NaOH is easily dissolved in it.
15. The mechanism and kinetics
Transesterification consists of a number of
consecutive, reversible reactions (Schwab
et al., 1987; Freedman et al., 1986).
The triglyceride is converted stepwise to
diglyceride, monoglyceride and ®nally
glycerol. A mole of ester is liberated at
each step.
16. The mechanism and kinetics
The reactions are reversible, although the
equilibrium lies towards the production of
fatty acid esters and glycerol.
The reaction mechanism for alkali-
catalyzed transesterification was
formulated as three steps (Eckey, 1956).
17. The mechanism and kinetics
The first step is an attack on the carbonyl
carbon atom of the triglyceride molecule
by the anion of the alcohol (methoxide
ion) to form a tetrahedral intermediate.
In the second step, the tetrahedral
intermediate reacts with an alcohol
(methanol) to regenerate the anion of the
alcohol (methoxide ion).
18. The mechanism and kinetics
In the last step, re- arrangement of the
tetrahedral intermediate results in the
formation of a fatty acid ester and a
diglyceride.
When NaOH, KOH, K2CO3 or other similar
catalysts were mixed with alcohol, the
actual catalyst, alkoxide group is formed
(Sridharan and Mathai, 1974).
19. The effect of molar ratio
One of the most important variables affecting
the yield of ester is the molar ratio of alcohol
to triglyceride.
The stoichiometric ratio for transesterification
requires three moles of alcohol and one mole
of glyceride to yield three moles of fatty acid
ester and one mole of glycerol.
The molar ratio is associated with the type of
catalyst used.
20. The effect of catalyst
Catalysts are classified as alkali, acid, or
enzyme. Alkali-catalyzed
transesterification is much faster than
acid-catalyzed (Freedman et al., 1984).
However if a glyceride has a higher free
fatty acid content and more water, acid-
catalyzed transesterification is suitable
(Sprules and Price, 1950; Freedman et al.,
1984).
21. The effect of catalyst
The acids could be sulfuric acid, phosphoric
acid, hydro- chloric acid or organic sulfonic
acid. Alkalis include sodium hydroxide,
sodium methoxide, potassium hy- droxide,
potassium methoxide, sodium amide, sodium
hydride, potassium amide and potassium
hydride. (Sprules and Price, 1950). Sodium
methoxide was more effective than sodium
hydroxide (Freedman et al., 1984; Hartman,
1956) because of the assumption that a small
amount of water was produced upon mixing
NaOH and MeOH.
22. The effect of reaction time
The conversion rate increases with reaction time. Freedman et al.
(1984) transesterified peanut, cotton- seed, sunflower and soybean
oils under the condition of methanol to oil ratio of 6:1, 0.5% sodium
methoxide catalyst and 60°C.
An approximate yield of 80% was observed after 1 min for soybean
and sunflower oils. After 1 h, the conversions were almost the same
for all four oils (93±98%).
Ma et al. (1998a) studied the effect of reaction time on
transesterification of beef tallow with methanol. The reaction was
very slow during the first minute due to the mixing and dispersion of
methanol into beef tallow. From one to five min, the reaction
proceeded very fast. The apparent yield of beef tallow methyl
esters surged from 1 to 38. The production of beef tallow slowed
down and reached the maximum value at about 15 min. The di-
and monoglycerides in- creased at the beginning and then
decreased. At the end, the amount of monoglycerides was higher
than that of diglycerides.
23. The effect of reaction time
Ma et al. (1998a) studied the effect of reaction
time on transesterification of beef tallow with
methanol. The reaction was very slow during the
first minute due to the mixing and dispersion of
methanol into beef tallow. From one to five min,
the reaction proceeded very fast. The apparent
yield of beef tallow methyl esters surged from 1 to
38. The production of beef tallow slowed down
and reached the maximum value at about 15 min.
The di- and monoglycerides in- creased at the
beginning and then decreased. At the end, the
amount of monoglycerides was higher than that
of diglycerides.
24. The effect of reaction
temperature
Transesterification can occur at different
temperatures, depending on the oil used.
In methanolysis of castor oil to methyl
ricinoleate, the reaction proceeded most
satisfactorily at 20±35°C with a molar ratio
of 6:1± 12:1 and 0.005±0.35% (by weight of
oil) of NaOH cat- alyst (Smith, 1949).
25. The process of
transesterification and
downstream operations
Bradshaw and Meuly (1944) patented a
process for making soap from natural oils or
fats. This two-step process included making
fatty acid esters from oils, then producing
soap from the esters. The crude oil was first
refined to remove a certain amount of water,
free fatty acids mucilaginous matter, protein,
coloring matter and sugars.
Trent (1945) patented a continuous
transesterification process. Reactants were
fed into a reactor through a steam heated
coil in the upper part of the reactor.
26. The process of
transesterification and
downstream operations
The transesterification reaction took place
when the reactants were heated and
products mixture left the heater.
The process patented by Smith (1949) was
almost the same as the process described
by Bradshaw and Meuly (1944). The molar
ratio increased to 6:1±12:1 and the
reaction temperature range was 20±35°C.
27. Other types of
transesterifications
Lee et al. (1995) transesterified oils and fats
using branched-chain alcohols, such as
isopropyl or 2-butyl (1:66) to reduce the
crystallization temperature of bio- diesel.
The crystallization onset temperatures (TCO)
of isopropyl esters of lard and tallow were
similar to that of methyl esters of soybean oil.
In-situ transesterification of oils was
investigated (Harrington and Catherine, 1985;
Kildiran et al., 1996).
28. Other types of
transesterifications
Harrington and Catherine (1985)
compared the conventional and in-situ
processes and found the acid catalyzed
in-situ process for sunflower seed oil was
better than that from the more
conventional process.
increasing reaction temperature and time
and by decreasing the particle size of the
soybeans and the water content of
ethanol, a purer product was obtained.
29. Other types of
transesterifications
Jackson and King (1996) reported a direct
methanolysis of triglycerides using an
immobilized lipase in flowing supercritical
carbon dioxide
This process combined the extraction and
transesteri®cation of the oil. A continuous
process may be possible (Ooi et al., 1996).
Muniyappa (1995) suggested the utilization of
a higher shear mixing device for making esters
from animal fat, but no data were given.
30. Of the several methods available for
producing biodiesel, transesterification of
natural oils and fats is currently the method
of choice. The purpose of the process is to
lower the viscosity of the oil or fat. Although
blending of oils and other solvents and
microemulsions of vegetable oils lowers the
viscosity, engine performance problems,
such as carbon deposit and lubricating oil
contamination, still exist.
Pyrolysis produces more biogasoline than
biodiesel fuel. Transesteriication is basically a
sequential reaction.
). One hundred years ago, Rudolf Diesel tested vegetable oil as fuel for his engine (Shay, 1993). With the advent of cheap petroleum, appropriate crude oil frac- tions were refined to serve as fuel and diesel fuels and diesel engines evolved together. In the 1930s and 1940s vegetable oils were used as diesel fuels from time to time, but usually only in emergency situations. Recently, be- cause of increases in crude oil prices, limited resources of fossil oil and environmental concerns there has been a renewed focus on vegetable oils and animal fats to make biodiesel fuels. Continued and increasing use of petro- leum will intensify local air pollution and magnify the global warming problems caused by CO2 (Shay, 1993). In a particular case, such as the emission of pollutants in