This document provides an overview of biodiesel production methods and their impact on emissions. It discusses the advantages of heterogeneous catalysts over homogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production. The document then reviews several studies on biodiesel production from waste cooking oil using transesterification with various catalysts and production methods. Key findings from these studies include higher biodiesel yields from transesterification at 60°C and reductions in emissions like CO and smoke when using biodiesel blends compared to diesel fuel. The document concludes by stating that biodiesel production from waste oils helps address issues of decreasing oil reserves, environmental pollution, and high fuel prices.

1. Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, biodiesel has gained international attention as a source of alternative
fuel due to characteristics like high degradability, no toxicity, and low emission of carbon
monoxide, particulate matter and unburned hydrocarbons. Biodiesel is a mixture of alkyl
esters and it can be used in conventional compression ignitions engines, which need almost
no modification. As well, biodiesel can be used as heating oil and as fuel. So far, this
alternative fuel has been successfully produced by transesterification of vegetable oils and
animal fats using homogeneous basic catalysts (mainly sodium or potassium hydroxide
dissolved in methanol). Traditional homogeneous catalysts (basic or acid) possess
advantages including high activity (complete conversion within 1 h) and mild reaction
conditions (from 40 to 65 °C and atmospheric pressure). However, the use of homogeneous
catalysts leads to soap production. Besides, in the homogeneous process the catalyst is
consumed thus reducing the catalytic efficiency. This causes an increase in viscosity and the
formation of gels. In addition, the method for the removal of the catalyst after reaction is
technically difficult and a large amount of wastewater is produced in order to separate and
clean the products, which increases the overall cost of the process. Thus, the total cost of the
biodiesel production based on homogeneous catalysis, is not yet sufficiently competitive as
compared to the cost of diesel production from petroleum.
An alternative is the development of heterogeneous catalysts that could eliminate the
additional running costs associated with the aforementioned stages of separation and
purification. In addition, the use of heterogeneous catalysts does not produce soap through
free fatty acid neutralization and triglyceride saponification. Therefore, development of
efficient heterogeneous catalysts is important since opens up the possibility of another

2. 2
pathway for biodiesel production. The efficiency of the heterogeneous process depends,
however, on several variables such as type of oil, molar ratio alcohol to oil, temperature and
catalyst type. So, one among alternate production methods of biodiesel is catalytic cracking
to improve quality of oil. This process is selected for production of biodiesel from mango
seed oil.
Environmental pollution is very serious problem for our human beings and flora-
fauna. The environment is polluted day by day from industrial emissions and road vehicles
emissions. Petrol engine and diesel engine produced different types of harmful gases during
combustion like NOx, CO, CO2, HC and some quantity SOx due to incomplete combustion.
These gases are produced by different engine factor such as piston bowl geometry, injection
timing, compression ratio etc. These entire factors also affect the combustion efficiency, fuel
consumption and engine brake power. To reduce the emissions engine manufacturers try to
best design, the combustion chamber and other level. At combustion chamber geometry
design to reduce the NOx many researchers studied the different piston bowl geometry.
Flow phenomena in internal combustion (IC) engines are extremely complex, and
the flow field is further complicated by the presence of swirl, squish, tumble and chemical
reactions. A complete understanding of the physical processes of fluid motion in combustion
chambers is essential in developing efficient engine design and control diagnostics.
Diesel engines have been greatly improved in terms of efficiency and reduced
emission level. However, the combustion process also depends highly on an efficient fuel-air
mixture, particularly in high-speed direct-injection diesel engines. Among these processes,
the flow conditions inside the cylinder at the end of the compression stroke and near the top
dead center are critical for fuel air mixing, wall heat transfer and engine performance
improvement. The mixing process is affected by the intake swirls, fuel injection system and
combustion chamber configuration. Thus good engine operation requires fuel spray matching
air movement and combustion chamber configuration.

3. 3
Most of our energy requirements are met by fossil fuels for good technological
reasons. Depletion of the petroleum reserves is a big concern, it is estimated that the world
resources of oil will be exhausted within 50 years. Environmental concern about air pollution
caused by the combustion of fossil fuels has also lead to serious implications. The diesel
engine is main prime movers compare to any other engine in transportations, power
generation and many miscellaneous applications i.e. in industries and agriculture. The major
pollutants from diesel engine are smoke, particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO),
nitrogen oxides (NOx) and unburnt hydrocarbons (UBHC). Incomplete combustion increases
the pollution level as compared to proper combustion. Due to reliance on transport
consumptions of fossil fuels has increase drastically and the world witness long term damage
to the climate. As transport is one of the few industrial sectors where emissions are still
growing and this fact has made transport a major contributor of green house gases (GHGs).
Generally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone etc are known as green house gases.
These gases interact with solar terrestrial radiation and causing imbalance on the Earth’s
climate system and increases earth surface temperature.
The significant effect of global warming has been felt for last two decades. This rise
in earth surface temperature is known as global warming. Reducing the emission of the gases
will lead to the solution to the climate change problem. Different methods of reducing the
climate change problem. Different methods of reducing the climate change problem could be
increasing the use of carbon capture and storage (CCS) techniques, increasing energy
efficiency and promoting the use of renewable energy and carbon free fuels. Different
methods like modifying the engine design, treating the exhaust gas and by fuel modification
exhaust gas emission of an engine can be reduce. To overcome the problems associated with
the use of petroleum derived fuels, it is urgently needed to develop a renewable energy
source of energy which must be environmentally clean.

4. 4
Research on the production of biofuel from the fossil fuels are causing the global
climate change due to catalytic cracking of mango seed oil has been well developed. This
method is able to crack complex hydrocarbons to yield less complex structures. With the
help of a catalyst, the reaction may be conducted at a lower temperature and pressure;
moreover the quality and quantity of the products may be enhanced. In the catalytic cracking
of vegetable oil to produce biofuel, the type and products’ compositions are influenced by
several factors, such as time, temperature, flow rate of the raw materials and type of
catalysts. Many types of catalyst have been used in the catalytic cracking to produce biofuel.
The catalysts have been developed to be used in the catalytic cracking of vegetable oil to
produce biofuel.
.

5. Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Invention generally to piston and/or combustion chamber configurations which
allow reduction of emission and fuel consumption in internal combustion engines, and more
specifically to piston and /or combustion chamber configurations which provide emissions.
Y.C.Wong and S.Devi; 2014 [1] explains Production of biodiesel was involved
transesterification process that implicated the reaction between used cooking oil and
methanol with aid of KOH. The reaction was carried out at 15 min, 30 min, 60 min, 90 min,
and 120 min to evaluate the effect of reaction time on the yield of fatty acid methyl ester
(FAME). The highest yield of FAME was obtained at reaction time 60 min. Besides that, the
yield of fatty acid methyl ester was studied by changing the reaction temperature at 30°C,
60°C, 75°C, 90°C, and 120°C. The maximum yield of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) was
obtained at 60°C.All samples of biodiesel at different reaction time and temperature were
contained high amount of bounded glycerol. Biodiesel was successfully reduced 39.2 percent
opacities level of smoke released by diesel engine. Biodiesel was less efficient in
performance of engine when compared with diesel fuel.
Seid Yimer and Omprakash Sahu; 2014 [2] explains energy is basic need for
growth of any country. The world energy demand is increasing so rapidly because of
increases in industrialization and population that limited reservoirs will soon be depleted at
the current rate of consumption. Both the energy needs and increased environmental
consciousness have stimulated the researching of an alternative solution. So an attempted has
been made to investigation of biodiesel production using transesterification reaction with
solid or heterogeneous catalyst at laboratory scale and to compare the physical properties
with the standard biodiesel properties. The selected process parameters are temperature

6. 6
ranged from 318 K to 333 K, molar ratio of methanol to oil from 4:1 to 8:1, mass ratio of
catalyst to oil from 3% to 5% and rotation speed at optimum biodiesel yield was produced at
600 rpm.
Prafulla D. Patil et al; 2012 [3] a comparative study of biodiesel production from
waste cooking oil using sulfuric acid (Two-step) and microwave- assisted transesterification
(One-step) was carried out. A two-step transesterification process was used to produce bio-
diesel (alkyl ester) from high free fatty acid (FFA) waste cooking oil. Microwave-assisted
catalytic transesterification using BaO and KOH was evaluated for the efficacy of
microwave irradiation in biodiesel production from waste cook- ing oil. On the basis of
energy consumptions for waste cooking oil (WCO) transesterification by both conventional
heating and microwave-heating methods evaluated in this study, it was estimated that the
microwave-heating method consumes less than 10% of the energy to achieve the same yield
as the conventional heating method for given experi- mental conditions. The thermal stability
of waste cooking oil and biodiesel was assessed by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The
analysis of different oil properties, fuel properties and process parametric evaluative studies
of waste cook-ing oil are presented in detail. The fuel properties of biodiesel produced were
compared with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards for biodiesel
and regular diesel.
Darwin Sebayang et al; 2010 [4] describes to explore a new transesterification
process from waste cooking oil to biodiesel using ultrasonic technique. The conversion of
waste cooking oil with sodium hydroxide as catalyst used ultrasonic type of clamp on tubular
reactor at 20 kHz. The reaction time, molar ratio, and biodiesel quality of this process were
compared with conventional transesterification. Method analyzed a total glycerol and free
glycerol was determined with Gas Chromatography referred to EN 14105 and functional
group of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) used Attenuated Total Reflection Infrared
Spectroscopy (ATR-IR) instruments. At the results, with presence of cavitation on the

7. 7
ultrasonic, chemical activity was increased so that the rate of ester formation is significantly
enhanced. The ultrasonic technique could reduce the transesterification reaction time to 5
minute compared to 2 hours for mechanical stirring processing. Conversion of triglyceride
(TG) to FAME using ultrasonic obtained 95.6929%wt with the methanol to oil molar ratio of
6:1 and 1%wt sodium hydroxide catalyst.
Wail M. Adaileh et al; 2010 [5] describes in this study, the combustion
characteristics and emissions of compression ignition diesel engine were measured using a
biodiesel as an alternative fuel. The tests were performed in Chemical and Mechanical
Engineering department laboratories at steady state conditions for a four stroke single
cylinder diesel engine loaded at variable engine speed between 1200-2600 rpm. The waste
vegetable oil (cocking oil) used in this investigation transferred from Tafila Technical
University restaurant collected and disposed in a suitable way. The testing results show
without any modification to diesel engine, under all conditions dynamical performance kept
normal, and the B20, B5 blend fuels (include 20%, 5% biodiesel respectively) led to
satisfactory emissions at variable load. The experimental results compared with standard
diesel show that biodiesel provided significant reductions in CO, and unburned HC, but the
NOx was increased. Biodiesel has a 5.95 % increasing in brake-specific fuel consumption
due to its lower heating value. However, using B20 and B5 diesel fuel gave better emission
results, NOx and brake specific fuel consumption. The experimental results show that the
fuel consumption rate, brake thermal efficiency, and exhaust gas temperature increased while
the bsfc,emission indices of CO2, CO decreased with an increase of engine speed. Moreover,
the engine power increased when increasing the biodiesel percentage varied from 1.23 to 3.2
for standard diesel while for B20 between 1.5 to 3.47.while brake specific energy
consumption varied between16.8 to 13.81 MJ/kW.kg for standard diesel, but for B5 found to
be between 16.3 to 13 MJ/kW.kg. In particular, biodiesel produced with the addition of the
pre-oxidation process had the lowest equivalence ratio and emission indices of CO2, CO. The

8. 8
emission of NOx among all of the test fuels found to be increased when using B5 and B20
instead of standard diesel and these results validate the data recorded by other previous work.
Therefore, the pre-oxidation process can be used effectively to improve the fuel properties
and reduce emissions when biodiesel is used.
Arjun B. Chhetri et al; 2008 [6] concluded that As crude oil price reach a new
high, the need for developing alternate fuels has become acute. Alternate fuels should be
economically attractive in order to compete with currently used fossil fuels. In this work,
biodiesel (ethyl ester) was prepared from waste cooking oil collected from a local restaurant
in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Ethyl alcohol with sodium hydroxide as a catalyst was used
for the transesterification process. The fatty acid composition of the final biodiesel esters
was determined by gas chromatography. The biodiesel was characterized by its physical and
fuel properties including density, viscosity, acid value, flash point, cloud point, pour point,
cetane index, water and sediment content, total and free glycerine content, diglycerides and
monoglycerides, phosphorus content and sulfur content according to ASTM standards. The
viscosity of the biodiesel ethyl ester was found to be 5.03 mm2/sec at 40oC. The viscosity of
waste cooking oil measured in room temperature (at 21° C) was 72 mm2/sec. From the tests,
the flash point was found to be 164oC, the phosphorous content was 2 ppm, those of calcium
and magnesium were 1 ppm combined, water and sediment was 0 %, sulfur content was 2
ppm, total acid number was 0.29 mgKOH/g, cetane index was 61, cloud point was -1oC and
pour point was -16oC. Production of biodiesel from waste cooking oils for diesel substitute
is particularly important because of the decreasing trend of economical oil reserves,
environmental problems caused due to fossil fuel use and the high price of petroleum
products in the international market.
K. Nantha Gopal et al; 2008 [7] presented by the biodiesel has been identified as a
potential alternative fuel for CI engines because use of biodiesel can reduce petroleum diesel
consumption as well as engine out emissions. Out of many biodiesel derived from various

9. 9
resources, biodiesel from WCO can be prepared economically using usual transesterification
process. In the present study, in-depth research and comparative study of blends of biodiesel
made from WCO and diesel is carried out to bring out the benefits of its extensive usage in
CI engines. The experimental results of the study reveal that the WCO biodiesel has similar
characteristics to that of diesel. The brake thermal efficiency, carbon monoxide, unburned
hydrocarbon and smoke opacity are observed to be lower in the case of WCO biodiesel
blends than diesel. On the other hand specific energy consumption and oxides of nitrogen of
WCO biodiesel blends are found to be higher than diesel. In addition combustion
characteristics of all biodiesel blends showed similar trends when compared to that of
conventional diesel.
Ayhan Demirbas; 2008 [8] reported that the CN of biodiesel from animal fats is
higher than those of vegetable oils. The CN of linseed oil was 28. As the temperature
increased, they yield improved significantly. The yield of ester sharply increased at first 3
min. The yield of biodiesel are relatively low even after reaction for 6 and 8 min. In this
supercritical alcohol transersterifiac6tio method, the yield of ester raises 88-98% for first 8 –
12 min. In catalyzed methods, the presence of water has negative effects on the yields of
methyl esters. However, the presence of water affected positively the formation of methyl
esters in our supercritical methanol method.
B.K. Barnwa; 2005 [9] carried out and investigation of biodiesel production from
vegetable oils in India and concluded that pretreatment is not required if the reaction is
carried out under high pressure (9000 kPa) and high temperature (240C), where
simultaneous esterification and transesterification take place with maximum yield obtained
at temperature ranging from 60 to 80C at a molar ratio of 6:1. Sodium alkoxides are the
most efficient catalysts, although KOH and NaOH can also be used. Transmethylation
occurs in the presence of both alkaline and acidic catalysts. It is reported that about 65-84%
conversion onto esters using crude vegetable oil has been obtained as compared to 94-97%

10. 10
yields refined oil under the same reaction conditions. The results of transesterification of
rapeseed oil in the supercritical methanol method has indicated that at temperatures of 239C
and pressure of 8.09Mpa, glycerol and methyl esters are obtained as the principle products.
SUMMARY:
 The major disadvantage of bio-diesel is its high production cost due to high
production of vegetable oil.
 Bio-diesel is produced by transesterification process which involves a chemical
reaction between an alcohol and triglycerides of fatty acid.
 The cost of bio-diesel is approximately 1.5 times higher than that of petroleum diesel
fuel due to cost of vegetable oil.
 Bio-diesel used as alternative fuels in diesel engine reduces the emission of HC,
CO2.

11. 11
Chapter 3
BIODIESEL AS ALTERNATE FUEL
3.1Biodiesel
The major components of vegetable oils and animal fats are triacylglycerols (TAG;
often also called triglycerides). Chemically, TAG are esters of fatty acids (FA) with glycerol
(1,2,3-propanetriol; glycerol is often also called glycerine). The TAG of vegetable oils and
animal fats typically contain several different FA. Thus, different FA can be attached to one
glycerol backbone. The different FA that are contained in the TAG comprise the FA profile
(or FA composition) of the vegetable oil or animal fat. Because different FA have different
physical and chemical properties, the FA profile is probably the most important parameter
influencing the corresponding properties of a vegetable oil or animal fat. Biodiesel can be
produced from a great variety of feedstocks. These feedstocks include most common
vegetable oils (e.g., soybean, cottonseed, palm, peanut, rapeseed/canola, sunflower,
safflower, coconut) and animal fats (usually tallow) as well as waste oils (e.g., used frying
oils). The choice of feedstock depends largely on geography. Depending on the origin and
quality of the feedstock, changes to the production process may be necessary. Biodiesel is
miscible with petrodiesel in all ratios. In many countries, this has led to the use of blends of
biodiesel with petrodiesel instead of neat biodiesel. It is important to note that these blends
with petrodiesel are not biodiesel. Often blends with petrodiesel are denoted by acronyms
such as B20, which indicates a blend of 20% biodiesel with petrodiesel.
3.2History ofBiodiesel
The use of vegetable oils as alternative fuels has been around for one hundred years
when the inventor of the diesel engine Rudolph Diesel first tested peanut oil, in his

12. 12
compression-ignition engine. In the 1930s and 1940s vegetable oils were used as diesel fuels
from time to time, but usually only in emergency situations. In 1940 first trials with
vegetable oil methyl and ethyl esters were carried out in France and, at the same time,
scientists in Belgium were using palm oil ethyl ester as a fuel for buses. Not much was done
until the late 1970s and early 1980s, when concerns about high petroleum prices motivated
extensive experimentation with fats and oils as alternative fuels. Bio-diesel (mono alkyl
esters) started to be widely produced in the early 1990s and since then production has been
increasing steadily. In the European Union (EU), bio-diesel began to be promoted in the
1980s as a means to prevent the decline of rural areas while 3 responding to increasing levels
of energy demand. However, it only began to be widely developed in the second half of the
1990s.
3.3Methods
Generally the direct use of vegetable oils in the diesel engine is not preferred due to
their high viscosity. Four methods to reduce the high viscosity of vegetable oils to enable
their use in common diesel engines without operational problems such as engine deposits
have been investigated.
 Pyrolysis;
 Micro-emulsification;
 Dilution; and
 Transesterification.

13. 13
3.3.1 Phyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the conversion of one substance into another by means of heat or by
heat with the aid of a catalyst. It involves heating in the absence of air or oxygen and
cleavage of chemical bonds to yield small molecules The liquid fractions of the
thermally decomposed vegetable oil are likely to approach diesel fuels. The pyrolyzates
have lower viscosity, flash point, and pour point than diesel fuel and equivalent calorific
values. The cetane number of the pyrolyzate is lower. The pyrolysed vegetable oils
contain acceptable amounts of sulphur, water and sediment and give acceptable copper
corrosion values but unacceptable ash, carbon residue and pour point.
3.3.2 Micro-emulsification
The formation of microemulsions (co-solvency) is one of the potential solutions for
solving the problem of vegetable oil viscosity. A microemulsion is defined as a colloidal
equilibrium dispersion of optically isotropic fluid microstructures with dimensions generally
in the 1±150 nm range formed spontaneously from two normally immiscible liquids and one
or more ionic or non-ionic amphiphiles. A micro-emulsion can be made of vegetable oils
with an ester and dispersant (co-solvent), or of vegetable oils, an alcohol and a surfactant and
a cetane improver, with or 4 without diesel fuels. Water (from aqueous ethanol) may also be
present in order to use lower-proof ethanol, thus increasing water tolerance of the micro-
emulsions.

14. 14
3.3.3 Dilution
Dilution of vegetable oils can be accomplished with materials as diesel fuels, solvent
or ethanol.
3.3.4 Transesterification Process
Transesterification is also called alcoholysis, is the displacement of alcohol from on
ester by another alcohol in a process similar to hydrolysis.
This process has been widely used to reduce the viscosity of triglycerides. The
transesterification reaction is represented by the general equation
R COOR’ + R” R COOR” + R’ OH
If methanol is used in the above reaction, it is formed as methanolysis. The reaction
of glyceride with methanol is represent by the general equation triglycerides are readily
transesterified in the presence of alkaline catalyst at atmospheric pressure and at a
temperature of approximately go to 70C with an excess of methanol. The mixture at end of
the reaction is allowed to settle. The lower glycerol layer is drawn off while the upper methyl
ester layer is washed to remove entrained glycerol and is then processed further.
The excess methanol is recovered by distillation and sent to rectifying column for
purification and recycled. The transesterification works well when the starting oil is of light
quantity. However, quite often low quality oils are used as raw materials for biodiesel
preparation. In case where the free fatty acid content of the oil is above 4%, difficulty arise
due to formation of soaps which promote emulsification during the water working stage and
at an FFA content above 2% he process becomes unworkable.
If the free fatty acid content of the oil is below 4% single stage process is adopted. If
the free fatty acid content s greater than 4% double stage process is adopted.

15. 15
3.4Process variable in transesterification
The most important variable that influence transesterification reaction time and
conversion are;
 Oil temperature
 Reaction temperature
 Ratio of alcohol to oil
 Intensity of mixing
 Purity of reactants
 Catalyst type and concentration
3.4.1 Oil temperature
The temperature to which oil is heated before mixing with catalyst and methanol
affects the reaction. It was observed that increase in oil temperature marginally increase the
percentage oil to biodiesel conversion as well as the biodiesel recovery. However the tests
were conducted upto only 60C as higher temperature may result in methanol less in batch
process.
3.4.2 Reaction temperature
The rate of reaction is strongly influenced by the reaction temperature. Generally the
reaction is conducted close to the boiling point of methanol (60C to 70C) at atmospheric
pressure. The maximum yield of esters occurs at temperature ranging 60C to 80C at a
molar ratio (alcohol to oil) of 6:1. Further increasing in temperature is reported to have a
negative effect on conversion. Studies have indicated that give enough time,
transesterification can proceed satisfactorily at ambient temperature in concentration of

16. 16
alkaline catalyst. It was observed that biodiesel recovery was affected at very low
temperature, but conversion was almost unaffected.
3.4.3 Ratio of alcohol to oil
Another important variable affecting the yield of ester is the molar ratio of alcohol to
vegetable oil. A molar ratio of 6:1 normally used in industrial process to obtain methyl ester
yields higher than 98% by weight. Higher molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil interferes in
the separation of glycerol it was observed that lower molar ratio required more reaction time
with higher molar ratios conversation increased but recovery decreases due to poor
separation of glycerol. It was found that the optimum molar ratios depend upon the type and
quality of oil.
3.4.4 Mixing intensity
The mixing effect is more significant during the slow rate region of
transesterification process as the single phase in established mixing becomes in significant.
The understanding of the mixing effects of the kinetics of the transesterification process is a
very tool in the scale up and design. It was observed that adding methanol and catalyst to the
oil, 5-10 minutes string helps in the higher rate of conversion and recovery.
3.4.5 Purity ofthe reactants
Alkali metal alkoxides are the most effective transesterification catalyst compared to
the acidic catalyst. Sodium alkoxides are among the most efficient catalysts used for this
purpose, although potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide can also be used.

17. 17
Transesterification occurs many folds faster in the presence of an alkaline catalyst than those
catalysed by the same amount of acidic catalyst. Most commercial trans-esterification are
conducted with alkaline catalysts. The alkaline catalyst concentration in the range of 0.5 to
1% by weight yields 94 to 99% conversion of vegetable oil into esters. Further, increase in
catalyst concentration does not increase the conversion and it adds to extra costs because it is
necessary to remove it from the reaction medium at the end.
It was observed that higher amounts of sodium hydroxide catalyst were required for
higher FFA oil. Otherwise higher amount of sodium hydroxide resulted in reduced recovery
due to more quantity of glycerol being separated from the oil.
3.5Washing and collection
The contents were separated in to two layers. The less density layer of methyl esters
floated upper portion of separating funnel. The colour difference between the two layers
enabled their easy separation.
The traces of soap and glycerine present in the methyl ester layer had to be removed.
Washing the esters with distilled water thrice. Washing was done by adding approximately
15% by volume of distilled water to methyl esters and it is allowed to settle. Since the
methyl esters are less density then water, they float on the top and were removed by
separating funnel. The clean methyl esters are obtained. The methyl esters are heated to
105C to 110C to remove the water content and it is cooled. The pure biodiesel is collected
in the container.
This procedure is repeated for different catalysts for the production of biodiesel.

18. 18
3.5.1 Recovery ofmethanol
Depending on the kind of oil used it takes from 110-160 millilitres of methanol per
liter of oil to form the methyl esters molecule and also need to use an excess of methanol to
push the conversion process towards completion. The total used is usually 20% and more of
the volume of oil used, 200ml per liter or more.
Much of the excess methanol can be recovered after the process for reuse, simply by
boiling it off in a closed container with an outlet leading to a simple condenser. Methanol
boils at 64.7C, though of course it starts vaporizing well before it reaches boiling point.
Methanol does not form an azeotrope with water and relatively pure methanol is recovered.
Pure enough to re-use in the next batch.
Methanol can be recovered at the end of the process, or just form the glycerine by-
product layer, since most of the excess methanol collects in the by-product and it’s that much
less material to heat. Start at 65-70C as the proportion of methanol left in the by-product
mixture decreases the boiling point will increase to raise the temperature to keep the
methanol vaporizing, perhaps to as highly 100C or more, though the bulk of it should have
been recovered by then.
3.6Benefits ofbiodiesel
One of the main driving forces for biodiesel widespread use is the limitation of
greenhouse gas emissions (CO2 being the major one) by the Kyoto Protocol. Along 9 with
ethanol and other biomass derived fuels, biodiesel is an important bio-energy. When plants
photosynthesize, they use the sun's energy to pull CO2 out of the atmosphere and incorporate
it into biomass. Part of the solar energy is locked into the chemical structure within the
biomass. There are a number of thermal, chemical or microbial processes that can be used to

19. 19
release this energy or convert it into a more convenient form for human use. As a form of
bio-energy, biodiesel is nearly carbon-neutral, i.e., the CO2 it produces on burning will be
absorbed naturally from CO2 in the air and recycled without an overall net increase in the
atmospheric CO2 inventory, thus making an almost zero contribution to global warming
There are many distinct benefits of using biodiesel compare to diesel fuel.
 Considered to be environmental friendly, biodiesel is one of the most renewable
fuels compare to diesel fuel.
 It is biodegradable.
 It is derived from a renewable domestic resource, thus reducing dependence on and
preserving petroleum. It can be domestically produced, offering the possibility of
reducing petroleum imports,
 Reductions of most exhaust emissions relative to conventional diesel fuel, generating
lower emissions of hydrocarbons, particulates and carbon monoxide;
 Biodiesel has a relatively higher flash point, >150 °C, indicating that it presents a
very low fire hazard; leading to safer handling and storage,
 Biodiesel provides greater lubricity than petroleum diesel, thus reducing engine
wear. In fact, biodiesel can be used as a lubricity enhancer for low-sulphur
petroleum diesel formulations,
 Toxicity tests show that biodiesel is considerably less toxic than diesel fuel (Haws,
1997).
 Biodiesel can be used directly in most diesel engines without requiring extensive
engine modifications.

20. 20
Chapter 4
WASTE COOKING OIL AS BIODIESEL
4.1Waste cooking oil as feedstock biodiesel
The term “waste cooking oil” (WCO) refers to vegetable oil which has been used in
food production and which is no longer viable for its intended use. WCO arises from many
different sources, including domestic, commercial and industrial. WCO is a potentially
problematic waste stream which requires to be properly managed. The disposal of WCO can
be problematic when disposed, incorrectly, down kitchen sinks, where it can quickly cause
blockages of sewer pipes when the oil solidifies. Properties of degraded used frying oil after
it gets into sewage system are conducive to corrosion of metal and concrete elements. It also
affects installations in waste water treatment plants. Thus, it adds to the cost of treating
effluent or pollutes waterways.
Any fatty acid source may be used to prepare biodiesel. Thus, any animal or plant
lipid should be a ready substrate for the production of biodiesel. The use of edible vegetable
oils and animal fats for biodiesel production has recently been of great concern because they
compete with food materials - the food versus fuel dispute. There are concerns that biodiesel
feedstock may compete with food supply in the long-term. From an economic point of view;
the production of biodiesel is very feedstock sensitive. Many previous reports estimated the
cost of biodiesel production based on assumptions, made by their authors, regarding
production volume, feedstock and chemical technology. In all these reports, feedstock cost
comprises a very substantial portion of overall biodiesel cost.

21. 21
The process of converting waste cooking oil into biodiesel can be broken down into
five primary sequential steps in figure 4.1
Figure 4.1. Generalized waste cooking oil-to-biodiesel fuel processflowdiagram
1. The first step is the waste oil collection. While each collection technique can be
different, it requires coordination between the collectors and the oil producing facility
(restaurant, community, cafeteria, municipality, etc.).
2. The second step is a pre-treatment process, which is broken into two sub-steps. The
oil is most likely to contain residual water, as well as solid food particles. Therefore, the
first pre-treatment step is to separate out the water and solids. This is crucial to ensure
full conversion of oil to biodiesel, described further below. Once separated, the oil is
then titrated to determine the concentration of free fatty acids (FFA). This determines
the necessary amount of catalyst for the transesterification reaction.
3. Following the pre-treatment process, the waste cooking oil feedstock is ready for the
transesterification reaction. The oil, a triglyceride, reacts with an alcohol, Waste Oil
Collection Pre-treatment Transesterification Biodiesel and Glycerol Separation
Utilization typically methanol, in the presence of a catalyst to produce fatty acid esters
(Figure 2) [13]. The oil is composed of three fatty acid chains with a glycerine “back
bone.” The alcohol breaks off the three fatty acid chains from the glycerine and then
attaches to each of the three free fatty acid chains making a fatty acid ester, or
commonly known as biodiesel. The broken off glycerin is the by-product of this
production process.
4. Once the transesterification reaction is complete, the biodiesel and glycerine will
separate with time, due to their different densities. When the products separate, there
will be two distinct layers with visible color and viscosity differences. The glycerine

22. 22
will be the bottom layer because it is denser than biodiesel. The glycerine separation
step is simply draining off the bottom layer of glycerine.
5. Once separated, the biodiesel and glycerin by-product can be utilized in appropriate
applications. Biodiesel can be used as a substitute for petroleum diesel fuels (fuel oil for
heating applications), while glycerin has numerous uses as a food additive, soaps
production, etc.
4.2Bio-diesel production by transesterification method
A laboratory-scale biodiesel production set-up was as shown the figure 4.1. It
consists of a motorized stirrer, straight coil electric heater and stainless steel containers. The
system was designed to produce maximum 5 liter of biodiesel. Temperature of the mixture
of the triglyceride, methanol and catalyst were maintained at about 60C.
The method adopted for preparation of biodiesel from Sapotta seed oil for this work
is, transesterification which is a process of using methanol (CH3OH) in the presence ofa catalyst,
such as potassium hydroxide (KOH),to chemically break the molecule of Sapotta seed oil into an
ester and glycerol. This process is a reaction of the oil with an alcohol to remove the glycerine,
which is a by-product of biodiesel production.

23. 23
Figure 4.2 Schematic diagram of Biodiesel Plant (5 lit. Capacity)
The procedure done is given below: 1000ml of waste cooking oil is taken in a
container. 15 grams of Potassium hydroxide alkaline catalyst (KOH) is weighed. 200 ml of
methanol is taken is beaker. KOH is mixed with the alcohol and it is stirred until they are
properly dissolved. Waste cooking oil is taken in a container and is stirred with a mechanical
stirrer and simultaneously heated with the help of a heating coil The speed of the stirrer
should be minimum and when the temperature of the raw oil reaches 62C the KOH-alcohol
solution is poured into the raw oil container and the container is closed with a air tight lid.
Now the solution is stirred at high speeds. Care should be taken that the temperature does not
exceed 62 C as ethanol evaporates at temperatures higher than 60C. Also the KOH-alcohol
solution is mixed with the waste cooking oil only at 62 C because heat is generated when
KOH and alcohol are mixed together and the temperature of the raw oil should be more than

24. 24
this when mixing is done if the reactions have to take place properly. After stirring the
animal oil-KOH-alcohol solution at 62 C for ½ an hour the solution is transferred to a glass
container. Now separation takes place and biodiesel gets collected in the upper portion of the
glass container whereas glycerine gets collected in the bottom portion. This glycerine is
removed from the container. Then the biodiesel is washed with water. Again glycerine gets
separated from the biodiesel and is removed. The biodiesel is washed with water repeatedly
until no glycerine is there in the biodiesel. Now this biodiesel is heated to 100 C to vaporize
the water content in it. The resulting product is the biodiesel which is ready for use.
Table 4.1 Physical and chemical properties of waste cooking oil
Property Waste cooking oil
Acidvalue (mgKOH/g) 2.1
Kinematicviscosityat40oC (cSt) 35.3
Fatty acid composition (wt%)
Myristic(C14:0) 0.9
Palmitic(C16:0) 20.4
Palmitoleic(C16:1) 4.6
Stearic(C18:0) 4.8
Oleic(C18:1) 52.9
Linoleic(C18:2) 13.5
Arachidic(C20:0) 0.12
Mean molecularwt(g/mol) 856

25. 25
Table 4.2 Properties of waste cooking oil B20 blend and diesel
(From ITA Lab, Chennai)
Property Diesel Biodiesel
(B20)
Specific gravity 0.835 0.8372
Flash Point C 37 65
Fire point C 40 75
Gross calorific
value in kJ/kg
44633 41241
Table 4.3 Properties of waste cooking oil B100 blend and diesel
(From ITA Lab, Chennai)
Property Diesel Biodiesel
(B100)
Specific gravity 0.835 0.9034
Flash Point C 37 72
Fire point C 40 82
Gross calorific
value in kJ/kg
44633 38172

26. 26
Chapter 5
OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY
5.1Objectives
1. Selecting the suitable non edible oil to prepare the biodiesel.
2. Based upon the literature survey waste cooking oil has been chosen as source to
extract the biodiesel.
3. The physical properties of the waste cooking oil biodiesel and its diesel blends are
shown.
4. To reduce the viscosity of the waste cooking oil, double stage transesterification
process is carried out.
5. The biodiesel extracted from waste cooking oil is blended with diesel fuel to
enhance the engine performance and emission characteristics.
5.2Methodology
1. The physical and chemical properties of the bio-diesel obtained through above
mentioned process is measured and compared with diesel fuel.
2. The bio- diesel obtained from the above mentioned process is subjected to
experimental investigation on a single cylinder, water cooled, four stroke, Kirloskar
TV-I engine.
3. Running the engine with various blends of B20%, B40%, B60%, B80% and B100%
at varying load conditions by keeping the engine speed at constant.
4. The B20% blend shows better results when compare to other blends and it can be
operated without any engine modification.

27. 27
Chapter 6
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE
6.1Experimental setup
The experiment was conducted on Kirloskar TV-1 single cylinder direct injection
(DI) diesel engine. Table 6.1 tabulates the specification of the engine while shows the
schematic of the overall arrangement of the test engine.
Table 6.1 Specifications of test engine
Type Single cylinder,vertical,water
Cooled,4-stroke dieselengine
Bore 87.5 mm
Stroke 110 mm
CompressionRatio 17.5:1
Orifice Diameter 20 mm
Dynamometerarmlength 195 mm
MaximumPower 5.2 kW (7hp)
Speed 1500 rpm
LoadingDevice Eddy currentdynamometer
Mode of starting Manuallycranking
InjectionPressure 220 kgf/cm2
Injectiontiming 23C before TDC
The engine was coupled to an eddy current dynamometer for load measurement
and the smoke density was measured using a AVL smoke meter. NOx emission was
measured using AVL Di-gas analyzer. The experiments were carried out in different phases.

28. 28
Fuel flow rate is obtained on the gravimetric basis and the airflow rate is obtained
on the volumetric basis. NOx is obtained using an exhaust gas analyzer. AVL smoke meter is
used to measure the smoke density. AVL Di gas analyzer is used to measure the rest of the
pollutants. A burette is used to measure the fuel consumption for a specified time interval
and the time is measured with the help of a stopwatch for a specified time interval and the
time is measured with the help of a stop watch. The experimental set up is indicated in figure
6.1. Specification of the AVL Di gas analyzer is shown in table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Specifications of AVL Di gas analyzer
Make AVL
Type AVLDi Gas 444
PowerSupply 11...22 volage  25 W
Warm up time  7 min
Connectorgas in  180 I/h,max.overpressure 450hPa
Response time T95 ≤ 15s
Operatingtemperature 5...45 C
Storage temperature 0...50 C
Relative humidity ≤ 95%, non-condensing
Inclination 0...90
Dimension(wx dx h) 270 x 320 x 85 mm3
Weight 4.5 kg netweightwithoutaccessories
Interfaces RS 232 C,Pick up,oil temperature probe

29. 29
Figure6.1Experimentalsetup(KirloskarTV-1Engine)
Experimentalsetup(KirloskarTV-1Engine)

30. 30
6.2Experimental procedure
The engine was allowed to run with neat diesel at a various loads for nearly 10
minutes to attain the steady state conditions. Then the following observations were made.
1. The water flow is started and maintained constant throughout the experiment.
2. The load, speed and temperature indicators were switched ON.
3. The engine was started by cranking after ensuring that there is no load.
4. The engine was allowed to run at the rated speed of 1500 rpm rev/min for a period of
20 minutes to reach the steady state.
5. The fuel consumption was measured by a stop watch for 10 ml fuel consumption
6. Smoke readings were measured using the AVL smoke meter at the exhaust outlet.
7. The amount of NOx was measured using AVL Di gas analyzer exhaust outlet.
8. The exhaust temperature was measured at the indicator by using a sensor.
9. Then the load is applied by adjusting the knob, which is connected to the Eddy
Current Dynamometer.
10. Experiments were conducted using neat diesel fuel, and blends of bio-diesel.

31. Sample Calculation
Engine Specification:
Break Power = 5.2 kW;
Speed = 1500 rpm;
Re = 0.195m; {Mean Effective Radius-Dynamometer armlength}
Bore Diameter = 87.50mm;
Stroke Length = 110mm
Load Test Formula
BP =
2𝜋ReNT
60 𝑋 1000
in kW
To find maximum Load or Tmax:
BP =
2𝜋ReNT
60 𝑋 1000
Tmax =
𝐵𝑃 𝑋 60 𝑋 1000
2𝜋ReN
in Nm {Tmax – MaximumTorque}
Tmax =
5.2 𝑋 60 𝑋 1000
2𝜋 X 0.195 X 1500
= 169.85Nm {BP=5.2; π=3.14;Speed=1500}
Tmax =
169.85
9.81
Nm { 9.81 – Gravitation force}
Tmax = 17.3kgf
Based on Load (20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100%):
Tmax - kgf Tmax - Nm
20% = 0.2X17.3 3.46 33.97
40% = 0.4X17.3 6.92 67.94
60% = 0.6X17.3 10.38 101.91
80% = 0.8X17.3 13.84 135.88
100% 17.30 169.85
1) FC1=Vol.Flowrate, CC/g; Density offuel, kg/CCX3600 s/hr
FC1 =
10
𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑔
X 0.835 X 1000 X 10-6
X 3600
{tavg 20% =47.64;40% =36.76; 60% =28.95;

32. 32
FC1 =
10
47.64
X 0.835 X 1000 X 10-6
X 3600 80% = 23.13; 100% =19.21}
FC1 = 0.618 kg/hr
Note: FC2=0.817;FC3=1.04; FC4=1.299; FC5=1.56;
2) Break Power in kW
BP1=
2𝜋ReNT
60 𝑋 1000
kW
BP1 =
2 𝑋3.14 𝑋 0.195 𝑋 33.06 𝑋 1500
60 𝑋 1000
BP1=1.01 kW
Note: BP2=2.07; BP2=3.10; BP4=4.14; BP5=5.199 Kw
3) Specific fuel consumption(SFC1) in Kg/Kw-hr;
SFC1 =
𝐹𝐶
𝐵𝑃
SFC1 =
0.618
1.01
SFC1 =0.612 Kg/ kW -hr
Note: SFC2 =0.395; SFC3 =0.335; SFC4 =0.314; SFC5 =0.30
4) Indiacated Power (IP), kW
IP1=BP1 + Fr.P
IP1=1.01 + 1.02
IP1=2.03 Kw
Note: IP2=3.09; IP3=4.12; IP4=5.16; IP5=6.22
5) Break thermal Efficiency:
B.therm η1 =
𝐵𝑃1
𝐹𝑢𝑃1
X 100
B.therm η1 =
1.01
7.21
X 100
B.therm η1 = 14%
Note: B.th. η2 =21.7; B.th. η3 =25.55; B.th. η4 =27.32; B.th. η5 =28.50;

33. 33
Table 6.3 Result tabulation for Diesel
Load Brake
Power
Specific Fuel
Consumption
Brake
Thermal
Efficiency
Smoke
Density
NOx HC CO
kgf kW kg/hr (%) HSU (ppm) (ppm) % vol
3.46 1.04 0.6000 12.6623 22.9000 284.0000 50.2000 0.1000
6.92 2.08 0.4036 19.9000 52.8000 584.0000 43.2000 0.1055
10.38 3.12 0.3359 23.8210 61.9000 871.0000 52.4000 0.1263
13.84 4.16 0.3168 25.3460 61.1000 1083.0000 76.4000 0.1744
17.3 5.20 0.2965 25.7000 72.3000 1062.0000 119.400 0.3594
Table 6.4 Result tabulation for B20%
Load Brake
Power
Specific Fuel
Consumption
Brake
Thermal
Efficiency
Smoke
Density
NOx HC CO
kgf kW kg/hr (%) HSU (ppm) (ppm) % vol
3.46 1.04 0.5853 12.2915 23.7000 319.0000 47.0000 0.1000
6.92 2.08 0.3873 19.9800 53.6000 568.0000 42.0000 0.1100
10.38 3.12 0.3224 24.0028 61.0000 881.0000 51.0000 0.1200
13.84 4.16 0.3028 25.4534 61.3000 1135.0000 70.0000 0.1680
17.3 5.20 0.2854 26.1000 71.0000 1118.0000 102.000 0.3220
Table 6.5 Result tabulation for B40
Load Brake
Power
Specific Fuel
Consumption
Brake
Thermal
Efficiency
Smoke
Density
NOx HC CO
kgf kW kg/hr (%) HSU (ppm) (ppm) % vol
3.46 1.04 0.6308 12.0200 25.1000 228.0000 53.5000 0.1095
6.92 2.08 0.4290 19.5240 54.8000 531.0000 47.0000 0.1100
10.38 3.12 0.3467 23.0132 62.4000 850.0000 58.0000 0.1343
13.84 4.16 0.3288 24.8950 64.3000 1058.0000 79.0000 0.1888
17.3 5.20 0.3109 24.1100 76.3000 1035.0000 123.000 0.3700

34. 34
Table 6.6 Result tabulation for B60
Load Brake
Power
Specific Fuel
Consumption
Brake
Thermal
Efficiency
Smoke
Density
NOx HC CO
kgf kW kg/hr (%) HSU (ppm) (ppm) % vol
3.46 1.04 0.6862 11.8295 26.8000 172.0000 53.0000 0.1199
6.92 2.08 0.4597 19.0334 54.4700 470.0000 48.8000 0.1231
10.38 3.12 0.3594 22.6143 64.9000 794.0000 56.5000 0.1432
13.84 4.16 0.3388 24.1005 66.0000 1044.0000 83.0000 0.1968
17.3 5.20 0.3080 23.8244 75.0000 1024.0000 126.000 0.3851
Table 6.4 Result tabulation for B80%
Load Brake
Power
Specific Fuel
Consumption
Brake
Thermal
Efficiency
Smoke
Density
NOx HC CO
kgf kW kg/hr (%) HSU (ppm) (ppm) % vol
3.46 1.04 0.7692 11.2410 26.3900 133.0000 56.2000 0.1189
6.92 2.08 0.4793 18.4217 56.2500 433.0000 49.8000 0.1262
10.38 3.12 0.3726 22.1000 65.8400 830.0000 57.3000 0.1512
13.84 4.16 0.3565 23.4467 67.7700 1020.0000 83.8000 0.2056
17.3 5.20 0.3289 22.5400 76.8800 990.0000 127.700 0.3802
Table 6.11 Result tabulation for B100
Load Brake
Power
Specific Fuel
Consumption
Brake
Thermal
Efficiency
Smoke
Density
NOx HC CO
kgf kW kg/hr (%) HSU (ppm) (ppm) % vol
3.46 1.04 0.7168 11.2857 28.3000 153.0000 54.4000 0.1198
6.92 2.08 0.4912 18.6974 58.6000 423.0000 50.2000 0.1326
10.38 3.12 0.3873 22.3510 67.2000 770.0000 58.3000 0.1528
13.84 4.16 0.3710 23.1143 70.8000 975.0000 89.3000 0.2100
17.3 5.20 0.3386 23.2071 80.1000 916.0000 129.300 0.4100

35. Chapter 7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the experimental investigation carried out have been furnished
hereunder.
a) Brake Thermal Efficiency
Figure 7.1 shows the variations of brake thermal efficiency with brake power for
various blends of bio-diesel. From the graph it is clear that the brake thermal efficiency
increases with increase in the percentage of bio-diesel blend. The brake thermal efficiency at
full load is raised by 1.5% with B20 blend when compared to that of diesel fuel. The reason
for this may probably be additional lubricity provided by the bio-diesel and its blends as well
as the high oxygen content of biodiesel which gives complete combustion.
b) Specific fuel consumption
Figure 7.2 shows the variations of specific fuel consumption with brake power for
diesel fuel with bio-diesel. As brake power increases, SFC decreases. The SFC of the bio-
diesel blend B20 shows lesser consumption when compared to that of diesel fuel and the
probable reason is heating value of the blend.
c) Oxides of Nitrogen
Figure 7.3 shows the variations of NOx emission with brake power for various
blends of bio-diesel. From the graph the NOx emission increases with increasing reaction of
bio-diesel blend. The NOx emission at full load is raised by 56ppm with B20% blend when
compared to that of diesel fuel. The reason for this may be the complete combustion of the
bio-diesel blend which increases the in cylinder temperature resulting in higher NOx
emission.

36. 36
d) Smoke density
Figure 7.4 shows the variations of smoke density with brake power for various
blends of bio-diesel. From the graph it is clear that the smoke density of the biodiesel blend
B20% is decreased when compared to that of diesel fuel at full load with constant speed. It
has shown an decrease of 1.3HSU. The reason may probably be the higher oxygen content
present in the blend which produces complete combustion resulting in reduced smoke values
e) Carbon monoxide
Figure 7.5 shows the variations of CO emission with brake power for various
blends of bio-diesel. From the graph CO emission of the biodiesel blend B20% decreases
with decreasing concentration when compared that of diesel fuel. The reason is additional
oxygen content present in bio-diesel and its blends which increases the conversion of CO
into CO2.Therby resolving the CO emissions. It has shown an decrease of 0.0374 %by
volume when compared to that of diesel fuel.
f) Hydrocarbon
Figure 7.6 shows the variations of HC emission with brake power for various
blends of bio-diesel. From the graph the HC emission of B20% decreases with decreasing
concentration of bio-diesel blend. The reason for decreased HC emission is the complete
combustion of bio-diesel and its blends due to rich oxygen content. The HC emission of the
blend B20% is 17ppm at full load condition.

37. 37
BTE of B20 blend is increased by 1.5%.
Figure 7.1 Brake thermal efficiency against brake power
Figure 7.2 Specific fuel consumption against brake power
SFC of B20 blend is decreased by 3.74%.

38. 38
NOx emission of B20 blend is increased by 56ppm.
Figure 7.3 Oxides of nitrogen against brake power
Figure 7.4 Smoke density against brake power
Smoke emission of B20 blend is decreased by 1.3HSU.

39. 39
CO emission of B20 blend is decreased by 0.0374 % by volume.
Figure 8.5 Carbon monoxide against brake power
HC emission of B20 blend is decreased by 17ppm.
Figure 8.6 Hydrocarbon against brake power

40. 40
Chapter 8
CONCLUSION
The main conclusions of this study are;
1. The physical properties of the biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil through
trans-esterification is measured and compared to that of diesel fuel.
2. The blend B20% shows significant reduction in CO, HC and smoke emission when
compared to that of diesel fuel.
3. The blend B20% shows the good performance and emissions characteristics when
compared to that of diesel fuel.
4. The BTE of blend B20 is increasing by 1.5%
5. The CO, HC and smoke emission of the blend 20% is decreased by 0.0374 % by
volume, 17ppm, 1.3HSU respectively.
6. The NOx emission also increased by 56ppm.
The NOx emission for bio-diesel blend is significantly raised. In future in order to
reduce the NOx emission, EGR may be employed to attain the desired result.

41. 41

42. 42

43. 43
Appendix A
PHOTOGRAPHS
Photograph view of experimental setup (Kirloskar TV-1 Engine)
Photograph view AVL Di-gas Analyzer
Photographic viewofAVL
Smoke meter

44. 44
Photographs of
waste cooking oil
Photographic viewofBiodiesel preparation
plant (transesterification process)
Photographic viewoftesting
Photographic viewof engine testing

45. 45
References
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0970-020 X CODEN: OJCHEG 2014, Vol. 30, No. (2): Pg. 521-528.
2. Seid Yimer and Omprakash Sahu, “ Optimization of Biodiesel Production from Waste
Cooking Oil”. Sustainable Energy, 2014, Vol. 2, No. 3, 81-84.
3. Prafulla D et al, “ Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil Using Sulfuric Acid
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4. Darwin Sebayang, “Transesterification of biodiesel from waste cooking oil using
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