![Week : 7
Lecture : 7
The Habitat and Traditional Technologies
Rural House Construction and distribution pattern of housing in a certain region develops according to
the need of the inhabitants under a set of geographic control and changes with the evolution of the
human needs at the different stages of the socio-economic and cultural development. Landform is one
of the major criteria in selecting housing site. As the major portion of Bangladesh is almost flat and
deltaic terrain, the inundation and flooding in monsoon forces houses to be sited on higher ground or
to raise the land artificially, as in the HAOR areas. The levees form most of the high ground available in
the deltaic areas or in the low basins.
Social and economic factors like the income, status, size of the family and besides, cultural practices
determine the size, design and form of houses, particularly, in terms of orientation or location of
individual housing units and of utility. For example, sleeping units in the households are made south-
facing while kitchens are constructed west-facing. Room number depends mainly on the socio-
economic status and also the size of the family. Rooms are of different sizes and shapes, though
rectangular is the common shape in the country. Around a rectangular or square courtyard, rooms are
constructed. In northern and mid-western parts of the country, there is a tradition of having inner and
outer courtyards. Pond is an important part in the villages of Bangladesh. Perennial trees surrounding
the houses is a common picture in almost all rural areas of the country. For ensuring privacy of the
household, every house normally has fencing made of BAMBOO or PALM leaves or straw or corrugated
iron (CI) sheets etc.
Rural houses are mainly made of indigenous materials locally available, such as, bamboo, straw, grass,
jute stick, Golpata [Golpata] (Nipa fruiticans), mud and CI sheets. Different combinations of them make
the main type. But the most common material for making the walls is bamboo. Of bamboo walled houses
the commonest are those with walls of thinly spliced bamboo, plaited into square of diamond pattern.
In the piedmont alluvial plains especially in Rangpur, and moribund delta area in Jessore, Haor basin,
Ganges, Tista, Brahmaputra-Jamuna and Meghna floodplains and in some areas in eastern and
northern regions, the houses are mainly bamboo-walled with thatched curved roof built on high plinth.
The roof of the houses is normally thatched with CI sheet; with Son [Shon] grass (Imperata arundincca)
in northern central and eastern regions; with Ulu (Saccharum cylindricum); Khari (S. fuscum) and Bena
grasses over most of northern and central regions and the north of southern regions; with golpata leaves
in the south of the southern region and the southern coastal tract of Chittagong district; with Tal [Tal]
(Borassns flabellifer) leaves over much of the Madhupur and Barind Tracts; and with paddy straw by
the poorest all over the country. Shapes are predominantly oblong. A small verandah [baranda] with
wood or bamboo support is the common design. Plaited bamboo dubbed on with a thick layer of mud
used for the wall is found in the housing construction in southwestern parts of northern Bangladesh.
The same of housing style is also common in the islands and the coastal regions of Chittagong,
especially on the south of Sitakunda. In the rural areas in and around Dhaka, Narayanganj, Chandpur
and Pabna, bamboo wall houses with CI sheet roof are quite common.
A long patch of landform running from Dinajpur, Bogra to Jessore and some parts of Khulna following
the western side of the country has a distinctive characteristic of mud-walled houses. Oblong shaped
mud-walled houses with thatch and tile roof are common in Bogra, Pabna, Kushtia and Jessore. In
Chapai Nawabganj, the roof of the mud-walled house is moulded by brick-dust mixed with lime, which
is peculiar to only this area. Besides, in the region from Bogra to Kushtia, mud-walled houses with CI
sheet or kerosene tin roof is another common type. The mud is dried in the form of block for building
houses. The gapes between the blocks are filled in with clay. Along with the land-level which normally
remains above flood level, relatively less rainfall and dry climate, and lateritic soil (which get very hard
when dry) are some of the main causes of the development of mud wall in the housing structure in
these areas. Mud-walled houses with two to three levels of roof are common in Chittagong region. The
roofs are often thatched with CI sheet. In the Madhupur area, mud-walled house with long grass-
thatched roof is common. This type of house is also common in northern and western Dhaka and south
of Tangail but with CI sheet roofing.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bhc7th8thweek-220207102644/85/Bhc-7th-amp-8th-week-1-320.jpg)
![Timber houses are common in certain parts of the country eg Madhupur Tract, Chittagong Region,
where there are forests nearby. Except in the southern Chittagong district, these timber houses are
invariably double-storied. The front is often curved and painted. In the southern Chittagong district the
houses of the Rakhaing, Moghs are also of timber, but on stilts and usually one storied. The prosperous
Moghs have double-storied houses with curved balconies and lintels. Sylhet district has a distinctive
half-timber type of houses. The floor and sometimes part of the lower walls are usually of brick
construction. The walls are of Ikra (Erianthus ravaneae) reeds or bamboo matting plastered over with
cement or mud on both sides and painted white; a frame of timber, painted black holds these up. The
roof is usually of CI sheets, and sometimes of straw. This type is common to the eastern parts of Sylhet
district
A house made of corrugated iron sheets is very prestigious in rural areas. Variations in the design, size
and height of the CI sheet-built houses are related with the status and wealth of the family. Roofs with
four facets of CI sheets, chouchala [chouchala] and with two facets, dochala [dochala], show two major
variations in the design and indicate the status of the owner in the rural society. The high roofed
chouchala with an attached verandah is aesthetically more attractive than a same size of dochala
house. Windows are generally higher than those of mud or bamboo or straw walled houses. The plinth
of these types of houses is sometimes made of cement. In Sylhet region, especially in the northern part,
which experiences heavy rainfall in the country, houses with CI sheet roofing are common. The
development of this type of houses perhaps owes its origin with the British colonial tradition when such
houses were built in the tea plantations. The walls are made of either CI sheets or bricks. In Faridpur,
Madaripur, Barisal, Patuakhali and Bhola CI sheet houses are also common where it is used both for
roofing and wall construction. In central part, as in Dhaka, Comilla and Mymensingh it is mainly used
for roofing with mud or mud block wall. But nowadays, CI sheet walled and roofed houses are commonly
observed all over the country.
Along the major rivers, where the areas are floodprone and subject to various hazards, like, riverbank
erosion, people are compelled to invest as little as possible in housing. Very often their houses have
walls of jute sticks with mud dubbed on and thatching of paddy straw which can be dismantled in hazard
events. In the Haor basin, Chalan Beel area and in the char lands, cheap construction materials like
reeds, long grass, jute sticks etc are widely used both for roofing and wall construction. This is so
because of the availability of reeds and long grasses in the char lands and in the beel areas.
Kitchens, cowsheds, poultry-coops, etc are built separate and are usually of poorer material. Kitchens
are rarely roofed with anything but thatched and have often a quarter to one-eighth the floor space of
the dwelling houses. Cowsheds are built very poorly in almost all over the country. In the northwestern
part of the central region, the cowsheds are thatched well and stand higher than the poor sheds common
in other areas. Only in the moribund delta do the cowsheds have a distinctive design. They are long
and low, with a slightly curved roof.
The tribes in the CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS (CHT) have their own distinct types of housing. The subculture
of the tribes is reflected in the distinctive impact of landform on the economy and habitat of the tribal
population which are significantly different from those in other parts of the country. In the forested hill
districts of Chittagong division in order to ensure safety from ferocious animals, houses are built on high
platform made of timber and bamboo with an open platform or veranda on one side. For climbing up,
there is a notched log or a bamboo ladder. Bamboo pieces are used in flooring and the roof is made of
split bamboo matting or with palm leaves or long reeds. The wide use of bamboo in house building is
facilitated by the abundant growth of bamboo in this part of the country. The Lusai, Panko and Bom
used to have houses with wooden floors and sometimes log walls. At the Garo foothills, the houses are
made of bamboo, wood with grass thatched roofing built on a high platform similar to those in the tribal
settlements in CHT. Nowadays, the traditional type of housing of the tribal people is dying out as the
cultural assimilation is going on with the plain land culture.
Traditional Food](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7)
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- 1. Week : 7 Lecture : 7 The Habitat and Traditional Technologies Rural House Construction and distribution pattern of housing in a certain region develops according to the need of the inhabitants under a set of geographic control and changes with the evolution of the human needs at the different stages of the socio-economic and cultural development. Landform is one of the major criteria in selecting housing site. As the major portion of Bangladesh is almost flat and deltaic terrain, the inundation and flooding in monsoon forces houses to be sited on higher ground or to raise the land artificially, as in the HAOR areas. The levees form most of the high ground available in the deltaic areas or in the low basins. Social and economic factors like the income, status, size of the family and besides, cultural practices determine the size, design and form of houses, particularly, in terms of orientation or location of individual housing units and of utility. For example, sleeping units in the households are made south- facing while kitchens are constructed west-facing. Room number depends mainly on the socio- economic status and also the size of the family. Rooms are of different sizes and shapes, though rectangular is the common shape in the country. Around a rectangular or square courtyard, rooms are constructed. In northern and mid-western parts of the country, there is a tradition of having inner and outer courtyards. Pond is an important part in the villages of Bangladesh. Perennial trees surrounding the houses is a common picture in almost all rural areas of the country. For ensuring privacy of the household, every house normally has fencing made of BAMBOO or PALM leaves or straw or corrugated iron (CI) sheets etc. Rural houses are mainly made of indigenous materials locally available, such as, bamboo, straw, grass, jute stick, Golpata [Golpata] (Nipa fruiticans), mud and CI sheets. Different combinations of them make the main type. But the most common material for making the walls is bamboo. Of bamboo walled houses the commonest are those with walls of thinly spliced bamboo, plaited into square of diamond pattern. In the piedmont alluvial plains especially in Rangpur, and moribund delta area in Jessore, Haor basin, Ganges, Tista, Brahmaputra-Jamuna and Meghna floodplains and in some areas in eastern and northern regions, the houses are mainly bamboo-walled with thatched curved roof built on high plinth. The roof of the houses is normally thatched with CI sheet; with Son [Shon] grass (Imperata arundincca) in northern central and eastern regions; with Ulu (Saccharum cylindricum); Khari (S. fuscum) and Bena grasses over most of northern and central regions and the north of southern regions; with golpata leaves in the south of the southern region and the southern coastal tract of Chittagong district; with Tal [Tal] (Borassns flabellifer) leaves over much of the Madhupur and Barind Tracts; and with paddy straw by the poorest all over the country. Shapes are predominantly oblong. A small verandah [baranda] with wood or bamboo support is the common design. Plaited bamboo dubbed on with a thick layer of mud used for the wall is found in the housing construction in southwestern parts of northern Bangladesh. The same of housing style is also common in the islands and the coastal regions of Chittagong, especially on the south of Sitakunda. In the rural areas in and around Dhaka, Narayanganj, Chandpur and Pabna, bamboo wall houses with CI sheet roof are quite common. A long patch of landform running from Dinajpur, Bogra to Jessore and some parts of Khulna following the western side of the country has a distinctive characteristic of mud-walled houses. Oblong shaped mud-walled houses with thatch and tile roof are common in Bogra, Pabna, Kushtia and Jessore. In Chapai Nawabganj, the roof of the mud-walled house is moulded by brick-dust mixed with lime, which is peculiar to only this area. Besides, in the region from Bogra to Kushtia, mud-walled houses with CI sheet or kerosene tin roof is another common type. The mud is dried in the form of block for building houses. The gapes between the blocks are filled in with clay. Along with the land-level which normally remains above flood level, relatively less rainfall and dry climate, and lateritic soil (which get very hard when dry) are some of the main causes of the development of mud wall in the housing structure in these areas. Mud-walled houses with two to three levels of roof are common in Chittagong region. The roofs are often thatched with CI sheet. In the Madhupur area, mud-walled house with long grass- thatched roof is common. This type of house is also common in northern and western Dhaka and south of Tangail but with CI sheet roofing.
- 2. Timber houses are common in certain parts of the country eg Madhupur Tract, Chittagong Region, where there are forests nearby. Except in the southern Chittagong district, these timber houses are invariably double-storied. The front is often curved and painted. In the southern Chittagong district the houses of the Rakhaing, Moghs are also of timber, but on stilts and usually one storied. The prosperous Moghs have double-storied houses with curved balconies and lintels. Sylhet district has a distinctive half-timber type of houses. The floor and sometimes part of the lower walls are usually of brick construction. The walls are of Ikra (Erianthus ravaneae) reeds or bamboo matting plastered over with cement or mud on both sides and painted white; a frame of timber, painted black holds these up. The roof is usually of CI sheets, and sometimes of straw. This type is common to the eastern parts of Sylhet district A house made of corrugated iron sheets is very prestigious in rural areas. Variations in the design, size and height of the CI sheet-built houses are related with the status and wealth of the family. Roofs with four facets of CI sheets, chouchala [chouchala] and with two facets, dochala [dochala], show two major variations in the design and indicate the status of the owner in the rural society. The high roofed chouchala with an attached verandah is aesthetically more attractive than a same size of dochala house. Windows are generally higher than those of mud or bamboo or straw walled houses. The plinth of these types of houses is sometimes made of cement. In Sylhet region, especially in the northern part, which experiences heavy rainfall in the country, houses with CI sheet roofing are common. The development of this type of houses perhaps owes its origin with the British colonial tradition when such houses were built in the tea plantations. The walls are made of either CI sheets or bricks. In Faridpur, Madaripur, Barisal, Patuakhali and Bhola CI sheet houses are also common where it is used both for roofing and wall construction. In central part, as in Dhaka, Comilla and Mymensingh it is mainly used for roofing with mud or mud block wall. But nowadays, CI sheet walled and roofed houses are commonly observed all over the country. Along the major rivers, where the areas are floodprone and subject to various hazards, like, riverbank erosion, people are compelled to invest as little as possible in housing. Very often their houses have walls of jute sticks with mud dubbed on and thatching of paddy straw which can be dismantled in hazard events. In the Haor basin, Chalan Beel area and in the char lands, cheap construction materials like reeds, long grass, jute sticks etc are widely used both for roofing and wall construction. This is so because of the availability of reeds and long grasses in the char lands and in the beel areas. Kitchens, cowsheds, poultry-coops, etc are built separate and are usually of poorer material. Kitchens are rarely roofed with anything but thatched and have often a quarter to one-eighth the floor space of the dwelling houses. Cowsheds are built very poorly in almost all over the country. In the northwestern part of the central region, the cowsheds are thatched well and stand higher than the poor sheds common in other areas. Only in the moribund delta do the cowsheds have a distinctive design. They are long and low, with a slightly curved roof. The tribes in the CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS (CHT) have their own distinct types of housing. The subculture of the tribes is reflected in the distinctive impact of landform on the economy and habitat of the tribal population which are significantly different from those in other parts of the country. In the forested hill districts of Chittagong division in order to ensure safety from ferocious animals, houses are built on high platform made of timber and bamboo with an open platform or veranda on one side. For climbing up, there is a notched log or a bamboo ladder. Bamboo pieces are used in flooring and the roof is made of split bamboo matting or with palm leaves or long reeds. The wide use of bamboo in house building is facilitated by the abundant growth of bamboo in this part of the country. The Lusai, Panko and Bom used to have houses with wooden floors and sometimes log walls. At the Garo foothills, the houses are made of bamboo, wood with grass thatched roofing built on a high platform similar to those in the tribal settlements in CHT. Nowadays, the traditional type of housing of the tribal people is dying out as the cultural assimilation is going on with the plain land culture. Traditional Food
- 3. Bangladeshi food refers to the Bengali food prevalent in Bangladesh. Bangladesh was the eastern part of Bengal before the Partition of India. The Bangladeshi cuisine incorporates many Persian-Arabic elements and the usage of beef greatly sets it apart from the cuisine in West Bengal in India. It also has considerable regional variations. A staple across the country however is rice, various kinds of lentil, which is locally known as dal (sometimes written as daal) & fish. As a large percentage of the land (over 80% on some occasions) can be under water, either intentionally because of farming practices or due to severe climatological, topographical or geographical conditions, not surprisingly fish features as a major source of protein in the Bangladeshi diet. There is also a saying which goes, "Machh-e-Bhat-e- Bangali" (Fish and rice make a Bengali). An integral part of Bangladeshi cuisine is beef, the presence of which is a must especially in feasts and banquets. Beef kebab is immensely popular throughout the country. Beef is used in the preparation of a wide range of dishes including biryani, tehari, halim, and many others. Regional feasts such as the Mezbaan of Chittagong, the Ziafat of Sylhet/Comilla or the Dawot of Dhaka will remain incomplete without serving spicy beef. Bangladeshi food varies between very 'sweet' and mild-to extremely spicy, many tourists even from other South East Asian and Subcontinental countries find the food spicy. It resembles North East Indian and South East Asian food more closely than that of any other part of the Subcontinent, most likely due to geographic and cultural proximity. The most important flavours in Bangladeshi cuisine are garlic, ginger, lime, coriander, cumin, turmeric and chilli. In sweet dishes, cardamom and cinnamon are amongst the natural flavors. Regional specialties Alu Bhaji occurs across the region. Luchi ,a flatbread. Shujir Halua a semolina based halua from across the region. Fuchka a variant of popular spicy snack. Other famous Bangladeshi dishes Torkari Biryani Kachchi (mutton) Biriyani, Chicken Biriyani & Tehari (beef). Khichuri (rice cooked with lentils) There are several styles of Bangladeshi bread, including Luchi, Nan, Tondul rooti, chapati and paratha Sweets and desserts Bangladeshi food has a rich tradition of sweets. The most common sweets and desserts include - Chômchôm Tangail's Porabarir chomchom is famous Kalo jam Golap Jam Rosho-golla A wide variety of Pitha - steamed rice cakes or Vapa Pitha, Chitoi Pitha, Pan Pitha. Firni also known as Payesh Khir Halua- there is different types of halua (semolina - shuji, carrot - gajor, almond - badam, boot etc...) Jilapi Doi - sweetened homemade creamy yoghurt Shemai - sweet vermicelli in cinnamon, cardamon and star anise infused milk. Shondesh - in Bangladesh, this is a palm sugar and rice flour fritter unlike the Shondesh of West Bengal
- 4. Chhana - also known as kacha shondesh, is an unrefined form of shondesh Jorda - sweetened rice or vermicili, fried in ghee (clarified butter) Shon-papri- Sweet Gram Flour Noodles, very fine delicate with a melt in mouth texture. Rosh-malai - small roshogollas in a sweetened milk base; Comilla is famous for its Roshmalai. Khaja & Goja - fried sweets Borfi - there are different kinds of them Murob-ba - traditionally made Bengali succade with various fruits such as Lime, Citron, Papaya, Mango, Pineapple, Soursop, Watermelon and also Ginger Traditional Food (Nakshi Pitha, Puli Pitha, Bhapa Pitha, Patishapta, Jilapi, Hilsha Kari) Beverages Borhani (a spiced mughal drink made from yoghurt with various eastern spice), it is generally drunk with biryani or another rich meal. Tea
- 5. Dresses and Dress materials Bangladeshi women habitually wear Sarees. Jamdani was once world famous for it's most artistic and expensive ornamental fabric. Moslin, a fine and artistic type of cloth was well-known worldwide. Naksi Kantha, embroidered quilted patchwork cloth produced by the village women, is still familiar in villages and towns simultaneously. A common hairstyle is Beni (twisted bun) that Bangalee women are fond of. Traditionally males wear Panjabis, Fatuas and Pajamas. Hindus wear Dhuty for religious purposes. Now-a-days common dresses of males are shirts and pants. Jamdani is a hand loom woven fabric made of cotton, which historically was referred to as muslin. The Jamdani weaving tradition is of Bengali origin. It is one of the most time and labor intensive forms of weaving hand loom weaving. In the first half of the nineteenth century, James Taylor described the figured or flowered jamdani; in the late nineteenth century, T. N. Mukharji referred to this fabric as jamdani muslin. Whether figured or flowered, jamdani is a woven fabric in cotton, and it is undoubtedly one of the varieties of the finest muslin. It has been spoken of as the most artistic textile of the Bangladeshi weaver. Traditionally woven around Dhaka and created on the loom brocade, jamdani is fabulously rich in motifs. The word Jamdani is of Persian origin, from 'Jam' meaning flower and 'Dani' meaning a vase or a container. The earliest mention of jamdani and its development as an industry is found in Kautikaya (about 3rd century BC), where it is stated that this fine cloth was used in Bangla and Pundra. Varieties of Jamdani Work Though mostly used for saris, Jamdani is also used for scarves and handkerchiefs. Jamdani is believed to be a fusion of the ancient cloth-making techniques of Bengal (perhaps 2,000 years old) with the muslins produced by Bengali Muslims since the 14th century. Jamdani is the most expensive product of Dhaka looms since it requires the most lengthy and dedicated work. Jamdani patterns are mostly of geometric, plant, and floral designs and are said to originate in Persian and Mughal fusion thousands of years ago. Due to the exquisite pain-staking methodology required, only aristocrats and royal families were able to afford such luxuries. The main pecuiliarity of Jamdani work is the geometric design. The expert weavers do not need to draw the design on paper, but instead work from memory. Jamdanis have different names according to their design (for instance, panna hajar, dubli lala, butidar, tersa, jalar, duria, charkona & many others). Present-day Jamdani saris have on their ground designs of rose, Jasmine, lotus, bunches of bananans, bunches of ginger and sago. A Jamdani with small flowers diapered on the fabric is known as Butidar. If these flowers are arranged in reclined position it is called tersa jamdani. It is not necessary that these designs are made of flowers only. There can be designs with peacocks and leaves of creepers. If such designs cover the entire field of the sari it is called jalar naksha. If the field is ocvered with rows of flowers it is known as fulwar jamdani. Duria Jamdani has designs of spots all over. Belwari jamdani with colorful golden borders used to be made during the Mughal period, especially for the women of the inner court. The early History The earliest mention of the origin of Jamdani and its development as an industry is found in Kautilya's book of economics (about 300 AD) where it is stated that this fine cloth used to be made in Bengal and Pundra. Its mention is also found in the book of Periplus of the Eritrean Sea and in the accounts of Arab, Chinese and Italian travelers and traders. Four kinds of fine cloth used to be made in Bengal and Pundra in those days, viz khouma, dukul, pattrorna and karpasi. From various historical accounts, folklore and slokas, it may be assumed that very fine fabrics were available in Bengal as far back as the first decade before Christ. Cotton fabrics like dukul and muslin did not develop in a day. Dukul textile
- 6. appears to have evolved into muslin. Jamdani designs and muslin developed simultaneously. The fine fabric that used to be made at Mosul in Iraq was called mosuli or mosulin In his 9th century book Sril Silat-ut-Tawarikh the Arab geographer Solaiman mentions the fine fabric produced in a state called Rumy, which according to many, is the old name of the territory now known as Bangladesh. In the 14th century, Ibn Batuta profusely praised the quality of cotton textiles of Sonargaon. Towards the end of the 16th century the English traveler Ralph Fitch and historian Abul Fazl also praised the muslin made at Sonargaon. Jamdani Muslin Muslin a brand name of pre-colonial Bengal textile, especially of Dhaka origins. Muslin was manufactured in the city of Dhaka and in some surrounding stations, by local skill with locally produced cotton and attained world-wide fame as the Dhaka Muslin. The origin of the word Muslin is obscure; some say that the word was derived from Mosul, an old trade centre in Iraq, while others think that Muslin was connected with Musulipattam, sometime headquarters of European trading companies in southern India. Muslin is not a Persian word, nor Sanskrit, nor Bengali, so it is very likely that the name Muslin was given by the Europeans to cotton cloth imported by them from Mosul, and through Mosul from other eastern countries, and when they saw the fine cotton goods of Dhaka, they gave the same name to Dhaka fabrics. That the name Muslin was given by the Europeans admits of little doubt, because not only Dhaka cotton textiles, but cotton goods imported by the Europeans from other parts of India like Gujrat, Golconda, etc were also called Muslin. The textile industry of Bengal is very old. Bengal cotton fabrics were exported to the Roman and the Chinese empires and they are mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and by the ancient Chinese travellers. But Dhaka Muslin became famous and attracted foreign and transmarine buyers after the establishment of the Mughal capital at Dhaka. The Muslin industry of Dhaka received patronage from the Mughal emperors and the Mughal nobility. A huge quantity of the finest sort of Muslin was procured for the use of the Mughal emperors, provincial governors and high
- 7. officers and nobles. In the great 1851 Exhibition of London, Dhaka Muslin occupied a prominent place, attracted a large number of visitors and the British Press spoke very highly of the marvelous Muslin fabrics of Dhaka. The finest sort of Muslin was made of phuti cotton, which was grown in certain localities on the banks of the Brahmaputra and her branches. The other kinds of cotton called bairait and desee were inferior and were produced in different parts of Dhaka and neighbouring areas; they were used for manufacturing slightly inferior and course clothes. The persons connected with the manufacture of cloth, from the cleaner to the maker of thread and the person who did the actual weaving, belonged to a family of weavers, or if the family was small two to three families joined together to manufacture the cloth. The productions of Dhaka weavers consisted of fabrics of varying quality, ranging from the finest texture used by the highly aristocratic people, the emperor, viziers, nawabs and so on, down to the coarse thick wrapper used by the poor people. Muslins were designated by names denoting either fineness or transparency of texture, or the place of manufacture or the uses to which they were applied as articles of dress. Names thus derived were Malmal (the finest sort), Jhuna (used by native dancers), Rang (of transparent and net-like texture), Abirawan (fancifully compared with running water), Khassa (special quality, fine or elegant), Shabnam (morning dew) Alaballee (very fine), Tanzib (adorning the body), Nayansukh (pleasing to the eye), Buddankhas (a special sort of cloth), Seerbund (used for turbans), Kumees (used for making shirts), Doorea (striped), Charkona (chequered cloth), Jamdanee (figured cloth). The finest sort of Muslin was called Malmal, sometimes mentioned as Malmal Shahi or Malmal Khas by foreign travellers. It was costly, and the weavers spent a long time, sometimes six months, to make a piece of this sort. It was used by emperors, nawabs etc. Muslins procured for emperors were called Malbus Khas and those procured for nawabs were called Sarkar-i-Ala. The Mughal government appointed an officer, Darogah or Darogah-i-Malbus Khas to supervise the manufacture of Muslins meant for the emperor or a nawab. The Malmal was also procured for the diwan and other high officers and for JAGAT SHETH, the great banker. Muslins other than Malmal (or Malbus Khas and Sarkar-i-Ali) were exported by the traders, or some portion was used locally. Weaving was prevalent in the Dhaka district in almost every village, but some places became famous for manufacturing superior quality of Muslins. These places were Dhaka, SONARGAON, Dhamrai, Teetbady, Junglebary and Bajitpur. Dhaka does not need introduction, it is the same place where the capital stands now; Sonargaon is now in Narayanganj district, it was once the capital of Sultan FAKHRUDDIN MUBARAK SHAH and his son (1338-1353), and again capital of ISA KHAN in the Mughal period; Dhamrai is still an important place on the Bangshi river, about 20 miles west of Dhaka; Teetbady is a village in the Kapasia thana of Gazipur district; Junglebary is now in the district of Mymensingh on the eastern bank of the river Brahmaputra; Bajitpur, 15/20 miles away from Junglebary is also in Mymensingh district; Junglebary was for long a residence of the family of Isa Khan. These places manufactured fine quality cloth, because they were situated near the places where cotton suitable for manufacturing Muslins was produced. These were also the places where the headquarters of ruling dynasties, Muslim or Hindu, were established. So the weavers of these places got support and encouragement from the aristocratic class. Dhaka Muslin was in great demand in the national and international markets. The traders were active at Dhaka. Local businessmen procured the cotton goods from the ADANGs or manufacturing stations and sent them to Dhaka, where foreign buyers were ready with cash in hand. The foreign traders came from far-off countries like Arabia, Iran, Armenia, in the west, and China, Malaya, Java in the east. Some traders were busy in inter-provincial trade, while others sent the Muslin to countries outside India. The government officials procured various types of Muslin, which they sent to Delhi for the use of emperors and ministers. When the capital was transferred to Murshidabad, the Muslins meant for the subahdar, diwan and other aristocratic people (like the banker Jagat Sheth) were sent there. In the 17th century, the European companies came and established their settlements in Bengal. Their principal settlements were located near HUGHLI, on the bank of the river Bhagirath; the DUTCH settled at Chinsura, the PORTUGUESE at Hughli, the ENGLISH settled first at Hughli but later shifted to Calcutta and the FRENCH settled at Chandernagore. The Ostend Company also came towards the beginning of the 18th century. They procured Dhaka Muslin, through dalals, paikars and also through
- 8. their own officials. When they found their export of Muslin extremely profitable, they also established settlements at Dhaka. By the beginning of the 17th and certainly by the middle of that century, the Portuguese trade declined. The Dutch set up their factory at Dhaka in 1663, the English in 1669 and the French in 1682. Formerly Europe used to get the Muslin through Iranian and Armenian merchants, but with the coming of the European companies and the establishment of their settlements in Bengal the export of Dhaka Muslin increased enormously. The volume of the export trade of the European companies increased year to year, so much so that they had to establish settlements and factories at Dhaka proper to feed the increased volume of trade. The imports of European companies had no local markets, so the companies imported hard cash, bullion, to meet the growing demand of Bengal, and particularly of Dhaka. Available estimates show that in 1747 the export of Dhaka cotton goods (chiefly of the fine variety of Muslin), including those procured for the emperor, Nawab etc was valued at rupees twenty- eight lakh and a half. The Muslin industry of Dhaka declined after the BATTLE OF PALASHI, 1757; by the end of the 18th century, the export of Dhaka Muslin came down to almost half of that of 1747, and by the middle of the 19th century was valued at less than ten lakh Rupees. The decline of Dhaka Muslin was due to loss of patronage from the Mughal emperors, nawabs and other high officials. The Mughals not only lost their power and prestige but also their buying and spending capacity. With the establishment of the EAST INDIA COMPANY's monopoly over the trade of Bengal after the battle of Palashi, the trade of other European companies and traders belonging to other nationals practically came to a stop. But the most important cause of decline and the ultimate extinction of the Muslin industry was the industrial revolution in England, which introduced modern inventions in manufacture. The costly Dhaka cotton goods, particularly the Muslin, lost in competition with the cheap industrial products of England. Dhakai Muslin Sharee Herbal Medicine Herbal Medicine preparations or derivatives of plants that are used in the treatment, cure, mitigation and management of various physical and mental diseases or ailments, and external or internal injuries of man and other animals. These are composed of powders, pastes, infusions, decoctions, extracts, and distillates or naturally produced products of various medicinal plants, and may also contain some additional inactive or neutral ingredients (such as other substances or plant-animal-and mineral origin). The plant drug in the preparations is the active therapeutic agent, which cures the disease or heals the wound or injury. Herbal medicine preparations are prepared and dispensed in a number of dosage forms, such as liquids (infusions, decoctions, extracts, oily mixtures, gargles, etc), solids (broken pieces, powders, pills, tablets, etc), semi-solids (pastes, ointments, creams, etc) and gases (steam inhalation preparations, fumigants, incenses, etc). These preparations are used both externally (topical application) and
- 9. internally (by oral administration). However, the intravenous route of administration is not used in the application of herbal medicinal preparations. This is because of the fact that most of these preparations are not suitable for this route due to their less refined forms. Usually, local technology is used in preparing herbal medicines. However, modern technological know - how and pharmaceutical machinery are now being gradually introduced and used in manufacturi ng herbal medicines. In Bangladesh herbal medicines are now officially recognised as alternative medicines and some of them are being produced in commercial scale by a number of manufacturers such as Sadhana Aushadhalaya, Sakti Oushadhalaya, Hamdard, etc. Commercial manufacture of herbal medicines in Bangladesh is done according to two recognised traditional systems, viz, Unani and Ayurvedic systems. Raw forms of herbal medicines are also used in the rural areas of the country as a part of FOLK MEDICINE. All these forms of herbal medicines have wide acceptability among the general populace, particularly in rural areas of the country. Many herbal medicines here have reputation as good and efficacious remedies for a number of diseases. The practitioners of herbal medicine are Hakims (who practice the Unani system), Kavirajes (who practice the ayurvedic system) and Quacks. Currently, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has officially recongised and recommended large- scale use of herbal medicines, particularly in the developing countries, as an alternative system of medicine to provide health care services at the primary health care level. An estimated 1.5 billion people of the world's population, according to WHO, are now getting treatment with Herbal medicines. Folk Medicine the system of many people's beliefs and practices concerning the relation of man to diseases, causes of disease and the efficacy of remedies. Organic, psychic and social phenomena are strangely intermingled in folk medicine. Folk medical treatment has been practised in this country from time immemorial. Despite the availability of the modern medicine, folk medicine still occupies a dominant place, especially in the rural society. Folk medicine consists of both material and non-material components. The material components consist of medicinal preparations from plants and animal products. These are dispensed usually in their raw forms and are used in treating simple diseases like cold, cough, fever, indigestion, constipation, diarrhoea, DYSENTERY, intestinal WORMs, etc. The non-material components consist of religious and spiritual items. The religious items include: (i) religious verses from holy books written on papers and given as amulets, or recited and blown on the face or body of the patient, or on water to be drunk, or on food to be eaten; and (ii) sacrifices and offerings given in the name of God and deities. Spiritual items include communicating with spirits or ancestors through human media to inquire about the disease and its remedy, recitation of incantations to drive away imaginary evil spirits, and many other similar methods. Non-material components, either independently, or in combination with material components, are generally applied in the treatment of all kinds of diseases, but are specifically used in the treatment of patients with psychological problems such as insanity, various types of phobias, and depression and fear of supernatural creatures. Sometimes their use extends to the treatments of diseases like pox, cancer, leprosy, fractures, snake-bite and even tetanus in newly born children. Folk medicine involves folk modes of treatment and also largely determines perceptions about disease and health prevailing among common folk. Some recent studies have found that a number of contagious and non-contagious diseases in the villages of Bangladesh are explained by the people in a manner significantly different from modern medical science. Rural people have their own terminology and modes of treatment. For example, they have coined several local names to express different forms of diarrhoea like dudher haga, patla paikhana, etc. Someone's erratic behaviour is called batash laga or alga batash, and is attributed to an intangible spirit, or sometimes, to a disembodied soul devoid of any corporeal spirit. Such a spirit apparently wanders through wind and penetrates the human body through its unlimited apertures. How does alga batash cause disease? The rural people will tell various stories to illustrate its working. Batash does not always penetrate the body directly. It may come through another person linked to a patient. Communicable diseases, however, are believed to be less influenced by alga batash than diseases like convulsions or hysteria, closely related to the domain of psychology. Violent behaviour accompanied by anger, deranged talk, loud laughter and other unusual behaviour are seen to be manifestations of alga batash. The indigenous term meho is used to express what is white discharge in medical terms or padda phool for uterine prolapse. In fact, without establishing the
- 10. correct meaning of indigenous terms or by linking the symptoms one cannot deduce the disease pattern of people in rural Bangladesh. What is conceptualised in the name of a disease is often something close to the notion of illness and largely refers to the functional experiences of the body. For example, if someone has an ashukh (disease), he or she does not feel well and finds it difficult to eat or walk. The search for health in case of illness involving reproductive health is not independent of the cultural influences that dominate rural life. Reproductive health problems, and vaginal discharge in particular, may be explained in several ways in the indigenous medical belief system. Such a discharge is often attributed to excessive heat inside the body. Childbirth is another domain where traditional explanations are widespread. Another level coming within the purview of traditional beliefs is related to women's monthly cycles. Menstruating women are not allowed to bathe either in ponds or in rivers. Village culture does not have the capacity to have pregnant women regularly examined by trained people. The delivery of a child in most cases takes place at home under conditions that are hardly hygienic. Most deliveries are domestic affairs generally conducted by relatives of the pregnant women. Only in critical cases, is a dai (birth attendant) called in. Gender discrimination, as might be guessed from overall conditions, also prevails in rural areas. To a rural mother, her child's health is more important than her own. To a rural wife it is her husband's health, which needs modern medical attention. A husband's prolonged sickness is sometimes blamed on the wife who is then branded as inauspicious. Women, it is believed, may contaminate husbands during menstruation and at the time of childbirth. She is therefore segregated and is a taboo for man during such situations. Subordinate status, ignorance, PURDA system, and the traditional feminine image compel women to take recourse to traditional treatment. To rural people a healthy person is one who is robust, looks lively, and shows energy in physical work. Minor sicknesses like headache, cold, slow fever, and stomach upsets do not bother them. A sick person does not go to a physician unless the sickness goes beyond what is considered a minor ailment. Their notions regarding disease causation include several mythological perceptions including God's will, divine punishment for wrongdoing, improper food intake, influence of an evil eye or spirit, etc. It is widely believed in rural areas and also in many sections of urban society that one has to take the help of mystic powers to treat diseases. The mystic power comes from a fakir, pir, maulavi, and others. Common traditional treatments include pani pada (water incantation), jhad phook (oral incantation), tabij (sacred amulet) and tel pada (oil incantation). Broadly speaking, three categories of folk medicine prevail in Bangladesh. These are non-registered herbal, magical, and magico-religious. A practitioner in herbal medicine not registered or not having any formal medical education is locally called a kabiraj. He prepares the medicine himself from locally available herbs and usually keeps the formula a secret. The formula is either inherited or manufactured by himself or received from a master (ustad). Magical practitioners take recourse to incantation. They are called bede or ozha and are invited to perform exorcism whenever a person is bitten by a snake or has diseases such as pain, rheumatism, toothache etc. Religious practitioners are invited to perform exorcism whenever a person is possessed by a zin or bhut (spirit). Too often, religio-magical practices go beyond the level of health-seeking behaviour to explain minor vices and crimes. To find out a thief or to isolate an offender different magical techniques are used. Ayna pada (sanctified mirror), bati chala (throwing an incantated bowl), lathi chala (sanctified stick) etc. are used for tracing out a thief, or finding out the amulets utilised by malicious persons to put a curse on someone. However, for successful cure, someone with the zodiac sign Libra, must hold these things. Since these types of beliefs and practices for treating either diseases or anything else are in common
- 11. use in rural Bangladesh because of traditional beliefs, cultural practices and sometimes superstitions, they are collectively called folk medicines.
- 12. Week: 8 Lecture: 8 The Bengali language and Literature from ancient to modern Bengali (বাাংলা) is an eastern Indo-Aryan language. It is native to the region of eastern South Asia known as Bengal, which comprises present day Bangladesh, the Indian state of West Bengal, and parts of the Indian states of Tripura and Assam. It is written using the Bengali script. With about 193 million native and about 230 million total speakers, Bengali is one of the most spoken languages (ranked sixth) in the world. The National song and the National anthem of India, and the National anthem of Bangladesh were composed in Bengali. Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Bengali evolved circa 1000–1200 AD from the Magadhi Prakrit, which developed from a dialect or group of dialects that were close to, but different from, Vedic and Classical Sanskrit. It is now the primary language spoken in Bangladesh and is the second most commonly spoken language in India. With a rich literary tradition arising from the Bengali Renaissance, Bengali binds together a culturally diverse region and is an important contributor to Bengali nationalism. In former East Bengal (today Bangladesh), the strong linguistic consciousness led to the Bengali Language Movement, during which on 21 February 1952, several people were killed during protests to gain its recognition as a state language of the then Dominion of Pakistan and to maintain its writing in the Bengali script. The day has since been observed as Language Movement Day in Bangladesh, and was proclaimed the International Mother Language Day by UNESCO on 17 November 1999. Pages from the Charyapada Like other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Bengali arose from the eastern Middle Indo-Aryan languages of the Indian subcontinent. Magadhi Prakrit and Pali, the earliest recorded spoken languages in the region and the language of the Buddha, evolved into the Jain Prakrit or Ardhamagadhi "Half Magadhi" in the early part of the first millennium CE. Ardhamagadhi, as with all of the Prakrits of North India, began to give way to what are called Apabhraṃśa ("Corrupted grammar") languages just before the turn of the first millennium. The local Apabhraṃśa language of the eastern subcontinent, Purvi Apabhraṃśa or Abahatta ("Meaningless Sounds"), eventually evolved into regional dialects, which in turn formed three groups: the Bihari languages, the Oriya languages, and the Assamese-Bengali languages. Some argue that the points of divergence occurred much earlier—going back to even 500 but the language was not static: different varieties coexisted and authors often wrote in multiple dialects. For example, Magadhi Prakrit is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around the 6th century which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for a period of time. Usually three periods are identified in the history of Bengali: 1. Old Bengali (900/1000–1400)—texts include Charyapada, devotional songs; emergence of pronouns Ami, tumi, etc.; verb inflections -ila, -iba, etc. Assamese (Ahomiya) branches out in this period and Oriya just before this period (8th century-1300). The scripts and languages during this period were mainly influenced by the Kamrupi language (script-Kamrupa Prakrit) as the entire region- Assam, Bengal and parts of Bihar and Orissa was under the Kamrupa kingdom (now known as Assam). 2. Middle Bengali (1400–1800)—major texts of the period include Chandidas's Shreekrishna Kirtana; elision of word- final ô sound; spread of compound verbs; Persian influence. Some scholars further divide this period into early and late middle periods. 3. New Bengali (since 1800)—shortening of verbs and pronouns, among other changes (e.g. tahar → tar "his"/"her"; koriyachilô → korechilo he/she had done). Historically closer to Pali, Bengali saw an increase in Sanskrit influence during the Middle Bengali (Chaitanya Mahaprabhu era) and also during the Bengal Renaissance. Of the modern Indo-European languages in South Asia, Bengali and its neighbors, Oriya and Assamese (Ahomiya), in the east maintain a largely Pali/Sanskrit vocabulary base, as doesMarathi in the center-west.One should note that spoken Hindi and spoken Urdu are identical at base. However, the current standard literary form of Hindi employs a great deal of imported Sanskrit vocabulary, while the literary form of Urdu is replete with borrowings from Arabic and Persian.
- 13. Until the 18th century, there was no attempt to document Bengali grammar. The first written Bengali dictionary/grammar, Vocabolario em idioma Bengalla, e Portuguez dividido em duas partes, was written by the Portuguese missionary Manuel da Assumpção between 1734 and 1742 while he was serving in Bhawal Estate. Nathaniel Brassey Halhed, a British grammarian, wrote a modern Bengali grammar (A Grammar of the Bengal Language (1778)) that used Bengali types in print for the first time.[2] Ram Mohan Roy, the great Bengali reformer, also wrote a "Grammar of the Bengali Language" (1832) During this period, the Choltibhasha form, using simplified inflections and other changes, was emerging from Shadhubhasha (older form) as the form of choice for written Bengali. Bengali was the focus, in 1951–52, of the Bengali Language Movement (Bhasha Andolon) in what was then East Bengal (today Bangladesh). Although the Bengali language was spoken by the majority of East Bengal's population, Urdu was legislated as the sole national language of the Dominion of Pakistan. On February 21, 1952, protesting students and activists were fired upon by military and police in the University of Dhaka and three young students and several other people were killed. Later in 1999, UNESCO declared 21 February as the International Mother Language Day in recognition of the deaths. In a separate event on May 19, 1961, police in Silchar, India, killed eleven people who were protesting legislation that mandated the use of the Assamese language. Bengali is the national and official language of Bangladesh, and one of the 23 official languages recognised by the Republic of India. It is the official language of the states of West Bengal and Tripura. It is also a major language in the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is also the co-official language of Assam, which has three predominantly Sylheti- speaking districts of southern Assam, Cachar, Karimganj and Hailakandi Bengali is a second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand from September 2011. It is also a recognized secondary language in the City of Karachi in Pakistan. In December 2002, Sierra Leone’s President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah also named Bengali as an "official language" in recognition of the work of 5,300 troops from Bangladesh in the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone peacekeeping force. The national anthems of both India and Bangladesh were written in Bengali by the Bengali Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore. In 2009, elected representatives in both Bangladesh and West Bengal called for Bengali to be made an official language of the United Nations. Dialects Regional variation in spoken Bengali constitutes a dialect continuum. Linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterjee grouped these dialects into four large clusters—Rarh, Banga, Kamarupa and Varendra; but many alternative grouping schemes have also been proposed. The south-western dialects (Rarh) form the basis of standard colloquial Bengali, while Bangal is the dominant dialect group in Bangladesh. In the dialects prevalent in much of eastern and south-eastern Bangladesh (Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka and Sylhet divisions of Bangladesh), many of the stops and affricates heard in West Bengal are pronounced as fricatives. Western alveolo-palatal affricates correspond to Eastern; the influence of Tibeto-Burman languages on the phonology of Eastern Bengali is seen through the lack of nasalized vowels. Some variants of Bengali, particularly Chittagonian and Chakma Bangla, have contrastive tone; differences in the pitch of the speaker's voice can distinguish words. Rajbangsi, Kharia Thar and Mal Paharia are closely related to Western Bengali dialects, but are typically classified as separate languages. Similarly, Hajong is considered a separate language, although it shares similarities to Northern Bengali dialects. During the standardization of Bengali in the late 19th century and early 20th century, the cultural center of Bengal was in the city of Calcutta (now Kolkata), founded by the British. What is accepted as the standard form today in both West Bengal and Bangladesh is based on the West-Central dialect of Nadia, an Indian district located on the border of Bangladesh. There are cases where speakers of Standard Bengali in West Bengal will use a different word than a speaker of Standard Bengali in Bangladesh, even though both words are of native Bengali descent. For example, nun (salt) in the west corresponds to lôbon in the east. Spoken and literary varieties Bengali exhibits diglossia, though largely contested notion as some scholars proposed triglossia or even n-glossia orheteroglossia between the written and spoken forms of the language.[38] Two styles of writing, involving somewhat different vocabularies and syntax, have emerged: 1. Shadhu bhasha was the written language with longer verb inflections and more of a Pali/Sanskrit-derived vocabulary. Songs such as India's national anthem Jana Gana Mana (by Rabindranath Tagore) and national song Vande Mātaram (by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay) were composed in Shadhubhasha. However, use of Shadhubhasha in modern writing is uncommon, restricted to some official signs and documents in Bangladesh as well as for achieving particular literary effects.
- 14. 2. Cholito bhasha (চলিত ভাষা) known by linguists as Manno Cholit Bangla (Standard Colloquial Bengali), is a written Bengali style exhibiting a preponderance of colloquial idiom and shortened verb forms, and is the standard for written Bengali now. This form came into vogue towards the turn of the 19th century, promoted by the writings of Peary Chand Mitra (Alaler Gharer Dulal, 1857), Pramatha Chowdhury (Sabujpatra, 1914) and in the later writings of Rabindranath Tagore. It is modeled on the dialect spoken in the Shantipur region in Nadia district, West Bengal. This form of Bengali is often referred to as the "Nadia standard" or "Shantipuri bangla". While most writing is in Standard Colloquial Bengali, spoken dialects (defeated language of the captive speaker. exhibit a greater variety. South-eastern West Bengal, including Kolkata, speak in Standard Colloquial Bengali. Other parts of West Bengal and western Bangladesh speak in dialects that are minor variations, such as the Medinipur dialect characterised by some unique words and constructions. However, a majority in Bangladesh speak in dialects notably different from Standard Colloquial Bengali. Some dialects, particularly those of the Chittagong region, bear only a superficial resemblance to Standard Colloquial Bengali. The dialect in the Chattagram region is least widely understood by the general body of Bengalis. The majority of Bengalis are able to communicate in more than one variety—often, speakers are fluent in colitobhasha (Standard Colloquial Bengali) and one or more regional dialects. For some counter-views, one may browse some different articles. Even in Standard Colloquial Bengali, Muslims and Hindu use different words. Due to cultural and religious traditions, Hindus and Muslims might use, respectively, Pali/Sanskrit-derived and Perso-Arabic words. Some examples of lexical alternation between these two forms are: Bengali Literature Bangla Literature dates back to at least the 7th century and may be divided into three main periods: ancient, medieval, and modern. The different periods may be dated as follows: ancient period from 650-1200, medieval period from 1200-1800, and the modern period from 1800 to the present. The medieval period may again be divided into three periods: early medieval- also known as the period of transition- from 1200-1350; high medieval from 1350-1700, including the pre-Chaitanya period from 1350-1500 and the Chaitanya period from 1500-1700; and late medieval from 1700-1800. The modern period begins in 1800 and can again be divided into six phases: the era of prose from 1800-1860, the era of development from 1860-1900, the phase of RABINDRANATH TAGORE (1861-1941) from 1890-1930, the post-Rabindranath phase from 1930 to 1947, the post- partition phase from 1947 to 1970, and the Bangladesh phase from 1971 to the present. Ancient period the conquest of Bengal by the Mauryas in the 3rd century BC led to the spread of Aryan languages in the Bengal delta. The BANGLA LANGUAGE, however, developed from PRAKRIT, through APABHRANGSHA and ABAHATTHA and outside the direct influence of Aryan languages. The earliest extant specimens of ancient Bangla are the 47 spiritual hymns now known as CHARYAPADA composed by Buddhist monks. Because the language of these hymns is only partly understood, it is called SANDHYA or twilight language. The Charyapada hymns possess both linguistic and literary value. The Siddhacharya, or composers of the Charyapada hymns, include Luipa, Bhusukupa, KAHNAPA and Shavarpa. Charyapada Charyapada the earliest extant Bangla poems, also known as Charyagiti and dating back to at least the 9th century. A palm- leaf manuscript containing the poems was discovered in the library of the royal court of Nepal in 1907 by HARAPRASADSHASTRI. Sastri edited the manuscript which was published by the VANGIYA SAHITYA PARISHADunder the title of Hajar Bachharer Purana Bangala Bhasay Bauddhagan O Doha (Thousand-year-old Buddhist songs and verses in Bangla) in 1916. Known as Charyashcharyavinishchaya, the manuscript is referred to as Bauddhagan O Doha or Charyapada in short. The manuscript contains 47 verses, composed by 23 poets, estimated to have lived between the 9th and 11th centuries AD. However, MUHAMMAD SHAHIDULLAH suggests that the poems go back to the 7th or 8th centuries. The language of the Charyapada is referred to as Alo-Andhari (light and shadow) or SANDHYA BHASA (twilight language). Though predominantly Bangla-with a recurrence of such words as 'Bangal Desh', 'Panuya Khal' (the river Padma), 'Bangali Bhaili'-it also draws from Oriya, Assamese or Ahamiya and Bihari, suggesting that the Charyapada poets came from the regions of Bengal, Orissa, Assam, and Bihar. The Charyapada poets include Sarhapa, SHABAR PA, Luipa, Dombipa, Bhusukupa, KAHNAPA, Kukkuripa, Minapa, Aryadev, Dhendhanpa. The Charyapada poets or siddhacharya were mystic poets, initiated in the SAHAJIYA doctrine. The poems express their tantric beliefs in figurative and symbolical language. Hence, the poems, though written in an early form of Bangla, are difficult to understand. The following lines by Dombipa, for example, show how the siddhacharya used similes and metaphors to contain their deeper, esoteric meanings. The literal meaning of these lines is that Dombi crossed the river. The deeper meaning is that Dombi reached the holy place through meditation. Bahatu dombi baha lo dombi batata bhaila uchhara. Sadguru paa pasae jaiba punu jinaura.
- 15. The Charyapada were meant to be sung as the use of the word 'Dhruva' in each couplet suggests. Each verse also prescribes the RAGA and TAL in which it is meant to be sung. The versesprovide a realistic picture of medieval Bengali society. They describe the different occupations of people who were hunters, boatmen, and potters. They also describe the popular musical instruments such as kada-nakada, drums, and tom- toms. The custom of dowry was prevalent. Cows were common domestic animals. Elephants too were common. Girls used to adorn themselves with peacock feathers, flower garlands, and earrings. Nevertheless, though they provide valuable details of everyday life in the medieval period, the Charyapada poets were essentially mystic poets. The Middle Bengali Literature is a period in the History of Bengali literature dated from 15th to 18th centuries. Followed by the Turkish Invasion in Bengal in the 13th century, literature in vernacular Bengali took its first shape in this time. The oldest example of Middle Bengali Literature is believed to be Shreekrishna Kirtana by Boru Chandidas. The Middle Bengali Literature is divided into three periods named Pre-Chaitanya Era, Chaitnya Era and Later Middle Age. In the Pre-Chaitanya Era (15th century) , the early Vaishnava Poetry or the Vaishnava Padavali by Chandidas and Vidyapati was composed; the first translation of Ramayana and Bhagavata in Bengali were made and with Manasa Mangal and Chandi Mangal flourished the tradition of Mangalkavya. In the Chaitanya Era (16th-17th century) the Later Vaishnava Poetry and the hagiography of Sri Chaitanya flourishes. In this period, the translation of Mahabharata into Bengali grows. Important development in Mangalkavya tradition is also seen in this period. In the Later Middle Age, the tradition of Shakta Poetry or Shakta Padavali grows. The age of Mangalkavya meets its end with the composition of Annada Mangal by Bharat Chandra. The Baul tradition emerged as an intellectual icon with Lalan Fakir. The Eastern Bengal Ballads and Muslim love songs are one of the most important aspect of this period. Sri Krishna Kirtana Shreekrishna Kirtana Kabya (Bengali: শ্রীকৃ ষ্ণকীত ত ন কাব্য) or Sri Krishna Kirtana Kabya is a pastoral Vaishnava drama in verse composed by Boru Chandidas. It is considered to be the most significant workafter Charyapada in the history of Bengali literature. These verses are believed to be written in the pre-Chaitanya era of the later half of 14th century CE. In 1909, Basanta Ranjan Roy Bidvatballava retrieved the punthi (manuscript) of SriKrishna Kirtana from a shelf in the cowshed of Debendranath Mukhopadhyay, a resident of Kankilya Village, Bankura. Since the punthi was found shorn of its pages including the opening and ending ones, its original name could not be ascertained. A slip inside the punthi reveals that it was initially preserved in the royal library of Bishnupur under the name of Sri Krishna Sandarva. However, the punthi, edited and rechristened as Shreekrishna Kirtana by Bidvatballava, was published by Vangiya Sahitya Parishad in 1916. The Sri Krishna Kirtana of Boru Chandidas was deeply influenced by the Vishnu Purana, the popular folk-literature of the period and the Gitagovindam by Jaydeva. The influence of other Puranas like the Padma Purana and the Brahma Vaivarta Purana and the Vaishnava scriptures is also substantial. There is a strong affinity of popular folk literature of the time in the style of the verse. Sri Krishna Kirtana consists of 417 Bengali padas (verses) and 133 (total 161, 28 shlokas are repeated twice) Sanskrit shlokas, which were also probably composed by the poet. The extant work is divided into 13 khandas (sections), namely, Janma (birth), Tamvula (piper betel which was considered as a token of love in that time), Dana (tax-collection), Nauka (boat), Bhara (burden), Vrindavana, Yamuna, Bana (arrow), Vamshi (flute) and Radha Viraha (estrangement of Radha) (the last khanda is not named by the poet). Yamuna khanda is further divided into three sub-sections. The first sub-section is Kaliya Damana khanda (coercion of Kaliya, the snake-demon section), and the third sub-section is Hara khanda (necklace section). The name of the second sub-section has not been found in the manuscript, but its subject matter is Radha's vastraharana (stealing Radha's robes). Bhara Khanda consists a sub-section, named Chatra khanda (umbrella section). Three characters, Krishna, Radha and Badayi, the messenger interrelate the plot of the play. Dialogues and counter-dialogues in payar and tripadi meters have added to the dramatic quality of Sri Krishna Kirtana. Shrikrsnakirtan is a lyrical composition, embodying the love affair between Radha and Krishna. Its storyline is not based on the Bhagavata Purana, but the popular erotic folk-songs, known as the dhamalis. However, Baru Chandidas managed to add substantial originality, making it a masterpiece of medieval Bangla literature. He gives the yearning of Radha a distinctly Bengali rendition, and in the process capturing much of the social conditions of the day.
- 16. Baishnav Padabali Vaisnava Literature Bangla literature of the Middle Ages, much of it poetry, based on the Vaisnava religion and philosophy. The story of RADHA and KRISHNA forms the main theme of this literature. The first epic on this theme was JAYDEV's12th century Sanskrit epic GITAGOVINDAM. In the 14th century BARU CHANDIDAS composed Shrikrishnakirtan in Bangla, the first epic in the language. Its 418 lyrics on Radha and Krishna, which are meant to be sung, indicate their respective RAGA and TAL. As a lyrical play, Shrikrsnakirtan is incomparable even today. In the second half of the century, Chandidas composed many lyrics on the story of Radha and Krishna. In the 15th century, VIDYAPATI (c 1380-c 1460) of Mithila composed many lyrics on the same theme in BRAJABULI. The lyrics became so popular that subsequently many Bengali poets, both Hindu and Muslim, composed Vaisnava lyrics in Brajabuli. RABINDRANATH TAGORE also composed his Bhanusingha Thakurer Padavali (1884) in this language. In 1474 MALADHAR BASU of Kulingram in Burdwan translated the 10th and 11th cantos of the Sanskrit Shrimadbhagavata about Krishna into Bangla and named it Shrikrsnavijay. In Shrikrsnavijay, Maladhar Basu concentrates more on Krishna's divine side than on the human side of the mischievous youth and lover of Radha. The most important sacred text of the Vaisnavas is Vyasadeva's Bhagavatpurana. The Muslim poet Afzal also composed some lyrics on the romance of Radha and Krishna at about the same time. Padavali Vaisnava lyrics, known as padavali, continued to be composed for about three hundred years, till the 18th century. These lyrics are inspired by the different aspects of love. Since these are meant to be sung, their respective raga and tal are clearly stated at the beginning of each lyric. In the post-Chaitanya era the themes of Vaisnava lyrics were expanded, with new lyrics being added to reveal other aspects of Krishna, such as Krishna as a child and as a friend. The lyrics, inspired by Vaisnava philosophy, include hymns and devotional poems, with the post-Chaitanya poets adding symbolic and spiritual meanings to the romance of Radha and Krishna. There is no accurate account of how many Vaisnava poets there were or how many lyrics they composed. The manuscripts of most of these lyrics have not been found. It is possible that the poets did not write down their lyrics and that they were sung by KIRTAN singers and passed orally from one singer to another. The names of the composers can be known from their compositions. Some lyrics dating from the beginning of the 18th century have been found, including Bishwanath Chakravarty's Ksanadagitachintamani (1705), Radhamohan Thakur's Padamrtasamudra, Vaisnavadas' Padakalpataru (1760) and Narahari Chakravarty's Gitachandroday. Padakalpataru is a compilation of about 3,000 Vaisnava lyrics by nearly 150 poets. The lyrics have been arranged according to the Vaisnava concept of aesthetics and are based on different episodes in Krishna's life: his childhood, his relationship with the Gopis, his romance with Radha, his estrangement from Radha, etc. Mangal Kavya Mangal-Kāvya (Bengali: "Poems of Benediction") is a group of Bengali Hindu religious texts, composed more or less between 13th Century and 18th Century, notably consisting of narratives of indigenous deities of rural Bengal in the social scenario of the Middle Ages. The Mangal-Kāvyas usually give prominence to a particular deity amalgamated with a Vedic or Hindu mythological god and the narratives are usually written in the form of verses. Manasā Mangal, Chandī Mangal and Dharma Mangal, the three major genus of Mangal-Kāvya tradition include the portrayal of the magnitude of Manasā , Chandī and Dharmathakur respectively. They are considered the greatest among all the native divinities in Bengal. But restraining the accounts of other deities, there are also minor Mangal-Kāvyas known as Shivāyana, Kālikā Mangal, Rāya Mangal, Shashtī Mangal, Sītalā Mangal and Kamalā Mangal etc. Each strain is composed by more than one poet or group of poets who are on the whole the worshipper of the god or goddess concerning their verses. The Mangal-Kāvya tradition is an archetype of the synthesis between the Vedic and the popular folk culture of India. Lila Ray elaborates, “Indigenous myths and legends inherited from Indo-Aryan cultures began to blend and crystallise around popular deities and semi-mythological figures in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. A new cosmogony was evolved, which is different from Sanskrit tradition but has an unmistakable affinity with the cosmogonic hymns in Rigveda and the Polynesian myth of creation.” The main Mangalkavyas include Manasamangalkavya, Chandimangalkavya, Dharmamangalkavya and Annadamangalkavya, with Manasamangal being the most famous. It is widely considered to be one of the most important works ever of Bangla literature and references to stories of Manasamangal abound in literature even to this day because of their highly symbolic value. There are also other minor Mangalkavyas such as Raimangalkavya in the Sundarban region. Nath Literature
- 17. Nath Literature medieval BANGLA LITERATURE, based on the Nath cult or yoga-sadhana, and part of the ancient religious heritage of India. The main god of the Naths is SHIVA, who is also called Adinath. The five Nath siddhas (or enlightened ones), Minanath, Goraksanath, Hadipa, Kanupa and Chauranginath, are described as having been born from different parts of the body of Adinath. Nath literature was of two types, didactic and narrative. Didactic literature was in the form of doha, prahelika or chara, where secrecy was observed with the abundant use of code words and sentences. Instructive Doha or verses by Kanupa and Jalandharipa are to be found in Charyagitikos. Other dohas are included in collections such as Goraksa-Sanghita and Yogachintamani. Minanath and Goraksanath left no individual texts. Goraksanath's compositions were mainly oral. Narrative Nath literature was based on legends and stories about the siddhas. The aim of the stories was to attract people to the cult. Narrative Nath literature follows dohas by about two centuries. Perhaps the most popular of these tales and legends was GORAKSAVIJAY. Raja Manik Chandrer Git, Maynamatir Gan, and GOPICHANDRER GAN are different versions of the same story. Apart from Bangla, versions of these stories are available in different Indian languages such as Hindi, Oriya, Marathi, Gujrati, Nepali, and Tibetan. Goraksa-Vijay is based on the contrast between Goraksanath, the perfect yogi, and his guru Minanath, who went astray. Minanath was cursed twice in his life: once, when in the shape of a fish at Jalatungi he secretly listened to the mahajnan recited by Shiva and the second time when he was attracted to Shiva's wife, Gauri. He was punished for listening to the mahajnan by losing his memory. For his second offence he was forced to spend an immoral life surrounded by 1600 women in Kadali. Minanath was rescued by his disciple Goraksanath in the guise of a female dancer. Maynamati-Gopichandrer Gan is the story of Queen Maynamati and her husband, Manik Chandra, which propagates yoga- guidelines. Queen Maynamati, who was a disciple of Goraksanath, advised Manik Chandra to renounce the temporal world through accepting the life of sannyas (asceticism). Manik Chandra refused to listen to his wife and died prematurely. The queen then advised her son, Gopichandra, to accept the path of asceticism under the guidance of Hadipa, a stable sweeper. Gopichandra listened to his other and became Hadipa's disciple and lived the life of an ascetic for twelve years. Gopichandra had learned a number of magic tricks during his sannyas and, after returning home, he entertained his wives with these tricks. Hadipa rebuked his disciple, at which Gopichandra grew angry and, at the advice of his wives, buried his master alive. Kanupa, a disciple of Hadipa, rescued his master. Gopichandra repented and renounced his kingdom permanently and became a saint. Modern Bengali Literature The nineteenth century literature onwards is referred to as Modern Bengali Literature. Early Modern Age witnessed the literary compositions of several prose writers, novelists, dramatists and Essayists. They include IshwarChandra Vidyasagar, Peary Chand Mitra, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Rabindranath Tagore, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Dinabandhu Mitra, Saratchandra Chatterjee, Manik Bandopadhyay, Bibhuti Bhusan Bandapadhay and many more. Chattopadhyay, Bankimchandra (1838-1894) writer, journalist, government officer, was born in the village of Kanthalpara in the district of 24-Parganas on 27 June 1838, son of Jadavchandra Chattopadhyay, who was then deputy collector at Hughli. Bankim was one of the two students of the first BA batch of Calcutta University. Following his father's footsteps, Bankimchandra joined the Subordinate Executive Service and became a deputy magistrate and deputy collector. As an officer of the colonial government, he did his job exceedingly well, and, in recognition of his performance, received the titles of Rai Bahadur in 1891 and Companion of the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire (CMEOIE) in 1894. Though Bankimchandra gained from his career the experiences that largely mold his thought processes, he made a place for himself in history not as an executive officer but as a writer and a Hindu revivalist thinker. While a deputy magistrate at Baruipur in the district of 24-Parganas, Bankimchandra wrote his first two celebrated novels: Durgeshnandini (1865) and Kapalkundala (1866). Further novels were published in quick succession, till, by 1887, all fourteen of Bankim's novels had been published, along with other prose works. Anandamath (1882) is possibly Bankim's last notable literary work. Subsequently, he became mostly pre-occupied with ideas of religious renewal and national awakening. But though relatively short-lived, his creativity had an astonishing impact on BANGLA LANGUAGE and literature. Bankimchandra's contribution to the development of Bangla periodical literature is no less. As a literary vehicle, his BANGADARSHAN created a generation of writers who set a new standard in the content and style of periodical literature. The style and trends set by the Samachar Darpan, SANGBAD PRABHAKAR, Sangbad Kaumudi and TATTVABODHINI PATRIKA were replaced by a new critical style set by Bankimchandra, though religious discussions remained a prominent feature. His own interpretations of HINDUISM were published in the Bangadarshan in a series of monographs: Krsnacharita, Dharmatattva, and Shrimadbhagavadgita. But he was not yet a devout Hindu of the preaching type. Several of his successful novels were
- 18. serialised in his periodical. Bankimchandra wanted to make Bangadarshan a platform for objective literary criticism on the model of European journals. But, like many other periodicals of his time, the Bangadarshan also had a short life, only four years (1872-76). The slogans that Bankim coined (Bande-mataram, matrbhumi, janmabhumi, svaraj, mantra, etc) in his Hindu re-generative essays and books were subsequently used by militant Hindu nationalists. Initially, the moderate leaders of the Indian National Congress were not enthusiastic about Bankimchandra's Hindu nationalist slogans. But his tremendous popularity among the younger generation in the Swadeshi era persuaded the Congress to use them as their rallying cry. Bande-mataram became the official slogan of the Congress and was used all over India. However, despite his retroactive religious and political thought and his dimming literary personality in later years, Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay was recognised by all, even by the Muslim literati, as the greatest literary genius of the time until overtaken by the literary giants RABINDRANATHTAGORE and KAZINAZRUL ISLAM. Madhusudan Datta Dutt, Michael Madhusudan (1824-1873) epic poet and playwright, was born on 25 January 1824 in a landed family in the village of Sagardari in JESSORE district. His father, Rajnarayan Dutt, was a law practitioner in Kolkata. Madhusudan studied initially with his mother, Jahnabi Devi, at home and then at Sagardari Primary School. At the age of 7 he was admitted to Khidirpur School, Kolkata, where he studied for two years. In 1833 he was admitted to Hindu College. Here, among other subjects, he also studied Bangla, Sanskrit and Persian. Madhusudan began writing while at Hindu College. He drew everyone'sattention at a college function in 1834 when he recited a poem that he had composed. Madhusudan's contemporaries at college included BHUDEV MUKHOPADHYAY, RAJENDRALAL MITRA, RAJNARAYAN BASU and Gourdas Basak. Madhusudan was, however, by far the brightest of them all. He won several scholarships in college examinations as well as a gold medal for an essay on women's education. While still a student at Hindu College, Madhusudan's poems in Bangla and English were published in Jnananvesan, BENGAL SPECTATOR, Literary Gleamer, Calcutta Library Gazette, Literary Blossom and Comet. On 9 February 1843, while still at college, Madhusudan converted to CHRISTIANITY, partly to escape a marriage his father had arranged. He took the name 'Michael' upon his conversion and wrote a hymn to be recited on the day of his baptism. However, on becoming a Christian, Madhusudan had to leave Hindu College as Christians were not allowed to study there. In 1844 he got admitted to Bishop's College and remained there until 1847. At Bishop's College, in addition to Sanskrit, he also studied Greek and Latin. Madhusudan's last days were painful, because of debts, illness and lack of treatment. He had no place of his own and had to take shelter in the library of the zamindars of Uttar Para. On 29 June 1873, three days after the death of Henrietta, the greatest poet of the BENGAL RENAISSANCE died in Calcutta General Hospital in a miserable condition. Madhusudan was the pioneer of the new 19th century awakening of Bengal. With his uncommon talent, he brought about revolutionary changes in Bangla language and literature. Drawing profusely on Sanskrit themes for his poems and borrowing from western literature, he set a completely new trend in Bangla literature. In almost whatever he attempted, he was the first if not the greatest writer of his time. Afterwards as well, Bengali writers would continue to be measured against him. Rabindranath Tagore Rabindranath Tagore (7 May 1861 – 7 August 1941), sobriquet Gurudev, was a Bengali polymath who reshaped his region's literature and music. Author of Gitanjali and its "profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse", he became the first non- European Nobel laureate by earning the 1913 Prize in Literature. In translation his poetry was viewed as spiritual and mercurial; his seemingly mesmeric persona, floccose locks, and empyreal garb garnered him a prophet-like aura in the West. His "elegant prose and magical poetry" remain largely unknown outside Bengal. A Pirali Brahmin from Kolkata, Tagore wrote poetry as an eight-year-old. At age sixteen, he cheekily released his first substantial poems under the pseudonym Bhānusiṃha ("Sun Lion"), which were seized upon by literary authorities as long- lost classics. He graduated to his first short stories and dramas—and the aegis of his birth name—by 1877. As a humanist, Universalist internationalist, and strident anti-nationalist he denounced the Raj and advocated for independence from Britain. As an exponent of the Bengal Renaissance he advanced a vast canon that comprised paintings, sketches and doodles, hundreds of texts, and some two thousand songs; his legacy endures also in the institution he founded, Visva-Bharati University.
- 19. Tagore modernized Bengali art by spurning rigid classical forms and resisting linguistic strictures. His novels, stories, songs, dance-dramas, and essays spoke to topics political and personal. Gitanjali (Song Offerings), Gora (Fair-Faced), and Ghare- Baire (The Home and the World) are his best-known works, and his verse, short stories, and novels were acclaimed—or panned—for their lyricism, colloquialism, naturalism, and unnatural contemplation. He composed two national anthems: the Republic of India's Jana Gana Mana and Bangladesh's Amar Shonar Bangla. The youngest of thirteen surviving children, Tagore was born in the Jorasanko mansion in Calcutta to parents Debendranath Tagore (1817–1905) and Sarada Devi (1830–1875). Tagore family patriarchs were the Brahmo founders of the Adi Dharm faith. The fabulously loyalist "Prince" Dwarkanath Tagore, with his European estate managers and his serial visits with Victoria and other occidental royals, was his paternal grandfather; Dwarkanath's ancestors hailed from the village of Pithabhog in modern-day Bangladesh. Debendranath had formulated the Brahmoist philosophies espoused by his friend Ram Mohan Roy, and became focal in Brahmo society after Roy's death. Known mostly for his poetry, Tagore wrote novels, essays, short stories, travelogues, dramas, and thousands of songs. Of Tagore's prose, his short stories are perhaps most highly regarded; he is indeed credited with originating the Bengali-language version of the genre. His works are frequently noted for their rhythmic, optimistic, and lyrical nature. Kazi Nazrul Islam Kazi Nazrul Islam(Bengali: কাজী নজরুি ইসিাম Kazi Nozrul Islam) (24 May 1899–29 August 1976), sobriquet Bidrohi Kobi, was a Bengali poet, musician and revolutionary who pioneered poetic works espousing intense spiritual rebellion against fascism and oppression. His poetry and nationalist activism earned him the popular title of Bidrohi Kobi (Rebel Poet). Accomplishing a large body of acclaimed works through his life, Nazrul is officially recognised as the national poet of Bangladesh and commemorated in India. Born into a Muslim quazi (justice) family in India, Nazrul received religious education and worked as a muezzin at a local mosque. He learned of poetry, drama, and literature while working with theatrical groups. After serving in the British Indian Army, Nazrul established himself as a journalist in Kolkata (then Calcutta). He assailed the British Raj in India and preached revolution through his poetic works, such as "Bidrohi" ("The Rebel") and "Bhangar Gaan" ("The Song of Destruction"), as well as his publication "Dhumketu" ("The Comet"). His impassioned activism in the Indian independence movement often led to his imprisonment by British authorities. While in prison, Nazrul wrote the "Rajbandir Jabanbandi" ("Deposition of a Political Prisoner"). Exploring the life and conditions of the downtrodden masses of India, Nazrul worked for their emancipation. Nazrul left the army in 1920 and settled in Calcutta, which was then the "cultural capital" of India (it had ceased to be the political capital in 1911). He joined the staff of the “Bangiya Mussalman Sahitya Samiti” ("Bengali Muslim Literary Society") and roomed at 32 College Street with colleagues. He published his first novel "Bandhan-hara" ("Freedom from bondage") in 1920, which he kept working on over the next seven years. His first collection of poems included "Bodhan", "Shat-il-Arab", "Kheya-parer Tarani" and "Badal Prater Sharab" and received critical acclaim. Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay (15 September 1876 – 16 January 1938) is one of the most popular Bengali novelists and short story writers of early 20th century. Sarat Chandra was born into poverty in Debanandapur, Hooghly, India. His family was occasionally supported by other family members and Sarat Chandra's lack of financial stability would influence his writing in yearsto come. He started his educatio n at "Pyarai Pandits" pathshala and then he took admission at Hooghly Branch High School. Although he began as a fine arts student, Chattopadhyay left his studies due to his persistent state of poverty. He received his early education while residing at his paternal uncle's house in Bhagalpur. He spent 20 years of his life in Bhagalpur and a significant portion of his novels were either written in Bhagalpur or based on his experience in Bhagalpur. His work represented rural Bengali society and he often wrote against social superstitions and oppression. For a short period he was a sannyasi, a Hindu ascetic who abandons the material and social worlds. His first published story was "Mandir". He was particularly sensitive to the cause of women. After the death of his parents Sarat Chandra left his college education midway and went to Burma in 1903. There he found employment with a Government Office as clerk. He did not remain at his job in Burma for long and decided to return to his homeland but before his departure he submitted a short story for a prize competition under his uncle's name, Surendranath Ganguli. It won first prize in 1904.
- 20. Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay (Bengali: লব্ভূ লতভূ ষণ ব্ন্দ্যাপাধ্যায়, (12 September 1894 - 1 November 1950) was one of the most famous Bengali novelist and writer of modern Bengali literature. His best known work, is the autobiographical novel, Pather Panchali (The Song of the Road), adapted (along with Aparajito, the sequel) into the memorable Apu Trilogy films, directed by Satyajit R Week : 9 Lecture : 9 Folk and Modern Performing Arts and Folk Music and Folk Games of bangladesh Introduction Bangladesh has a long history in its culture. The land, the rivers, and the lives of the common people formed a rich heritage with marked differences from neighboring regions. It has evolved over the centuries and encompasses the cultural diversity of several social groups of Bangladesh. The Bengal Renaissance of the 19th and early 20th centuries, noted Bengali writers, saints, authors, scientists, researchers, thinkers, music composers, painters and film-makers have played a significant role in the development of Bengali culture. The culture of Bangladesh is composite and over centuries has assimilated influences of Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity. It is manifested in various forms, including music, dance and drama; art and craft; folklore and folktales; languages and literature, philosophy and religion, festivals and celebrations, as also in a distinct cuisine and culinary tradition. According to pre-history culture of Bengal, a vast areas are plaid a vital role with folk performing arts which seen at the leisure period of this region. Normally performing arts are included along with music, song, acting, dance etc. Jatra Jatra (literally 'going' or 'journey') a form of folk drama combining acting, songs, music, dance, characterized by stylized delivery and exaggerated gestures and orations. Jatra performances were held in temple yards, public festival sites and courtyards. From the account by Brindavan Das, early performances in the 16th century were given on level ground. The rising popularity of Jatra in the 18th century led to improvise raised stages of bamboo poles and planks or wooden platforms. Spectators continued to sit round the stage. Some scholars believe that in the absence of adequate lighting facilities these performances were held during the day. Music and songs continued to dominate. Musical instruments included the Dholak, MANDIRA, Karatal and KHOL. The adhikari, manager-narrator, played the role of narrator, explaining and commenting on the songs and linking the scenes, often extempore. In the 18th century Jatra flourished in Vishunupur, Burdwan, Beerbhum, Nadia and Jessore. The general social degeneration of the first half of the 19th century was reflected in the Jatra, which became increasingly vulgar. In the latter half of the 19th century, Madanmohan Chattopadhyay, instituted a number of reforms. He placed greater emphasis on prose dialogue, shortened the length of songs and reduced their number. He replaced classical ragas with popular tunes. The number of dances was reduced, as well as the number of characters who would dance. Attempts were made to ensure some historical accuracy in costume. Female roles continued to be acted by male actors, but the convention of singing by proxy was introduced. The songs of male characters were sung by mature
- 21. male singers, while those of female characters were rendered by young actors. Live orchestra incorporated a number of western instruments including the violin, HARMONIUM and clarinet. Until about the end of the 19th century, the adhikari used to write the play. By the beginning of the 20th century, however, jatra texts began to be written by individuals outside the troupe. The adhikari would either buy the text outright or would pay a royalty. Another change that took place at this time was the introduction of the character of Vivek (Conscience). A major change in jatra took place after the First World War when nationalistic and patriotic themes became incorporated into the jatra. Though religious myths and sentimental romances continued to inspire the jatra, the nationalistic and patriotic spirit of Bengal also found its expression in the jatra. Mukunda Das (1878-1934) and his troupe, the Swadeshi Jatra Party, performed jatras about colonial exploitation, patriotism and anti-colonial struggle, oppression of feudal and caste system etc. In the 40s, when the struggle for independence from colonial rule was nearing its climax, the socio-political content of jatra superseded the religious-mythical theme. A major change that took place around this time was in the induction of actress to enact female roles. The Partition of Bengal in 1947, however, seems to have adversely affected jatra. Most of performances were of historical plays, with a vague sense of nationalism and patriotism, or melodramatic social plays. There was a dearth of playwrights to write for the jatra. However, jatras continued to be performed. Particularly popular during this period, especially in the southern district of Barisal, was Gunai Jatra, based on the tale of a village maiden named Gunai Bibi. The tradition of religious tales continued, in the form of Bhasan Jatra and Krishna Jatra, both of which were dominated by songs and music. Jatra today is performed on a rectangular platform (usually, 18' x 15' or 20' x 18'), open on all four sides, about three feet high and erected temporarily for the performance. Musicians sit on two opposite sides of the platform. Spectators sit around the stage, with a section of the space being reserved for women. The whole space is covered and enclosed. About two hours before the performance, between nine or ten in the evening, a stage attendant rings a bell signifying that the show is about to begin. After the second bell, the musicians take their positions and begin playing as a signal that the show is about to begin. Following a fifteen minute break, a third bell is sounded and a fast paced 'concert' commences. This is followed by a patriotic choral song sung by the troupe's dancer-singers. This patriotic choral song was a post-47 feature of jatra in East Pakistan and replaced the earlier tradition of Hindu devotional songs. The patriotic choral song is usually followed by an hour long variety show, incorporating songs, dances and comic interludes. After the variety show ends, around midnight, a fourth bell is rung following which the performance proper begins. A Jatra performance lasts about four hours and is divided into five acts, an influence of the 19th century colonial theatre. Following each act, the prompter rings a bell to signal the end of each act. During the intervals between acts, there are songs, dances and comic displays. The performance ends slightly before day-break. A large capital is required to organize a good Jatra troupe. Normally, a Jatra troupe consists of 50/60 persons, including actors and actresses, dancers, singers, musicians, technicians, managers, cooks, servants etc. The reputation and fame of a jatra troupe depends mainly on the standard of the actors- actresses and the dance artists. Generally jatra troupes rehearse from the month of Shravan to Ashvin, sometimes to Falgun. Jatra troupes travel from place to place on the occasion of DURGA PUJA in the month of Ashin. For this the performance-contracts are signed long before the occasion.
- 22. Jatra was an important form of entertainment in the past. Nowadays it has been replaced by many modern forms. The tastes of audiences have also changed. Thus the demand for jatra has diminished to a great extent. Jatra performances are therefore being modified. Social and contemporary subjects juxtapose historical and mythological stories. Modern stage techniques are also modifying the manner of speaking, costumes, musical instruments, make up, stage, lights etc. At the same time, contemporary Bangla THEATRE is drawing upon the indigenous Jatra. In place of western, text-based drama, the mixture of dance-song-performance of the Jatra is lending a unique strength to contemporary Bangla drama. Jatra Pandal Perfomer Pala Gan Pala Gan narrative folk ballad. Musical narratives about gods and religious hymns are also known as pala gan. Two well-known pala gan are Krishnakamal Goswami's Divyonmad and Govinda Adhikari's Muktalatavali. In MANGALKAVYA or epics about deities, the stories narrated during the day are called dibapala and those narrated at night are called nishapala. Pala gan are also known as pat. Pala gan are usually based on the stories of the PURANAs and folktales. Pala gan based on Sri KRISHNA and Sri CHAITANYA are also called palakirtan. Some well-known Purana palakirtan are Man, Mathur, Naukavilas, Kaliyadaman and Nimaisannyas. Popular pala gan based on folktales include Chandravati, Mahuya, Maluya, Kamala, Dewan Madina, Dewan Bhabna, Rupavati, Dasyukenaramer Pala and Bheluya. A pala gan has an introduction and a prologue in praise of Sri Chaitanya. Its narration in prose is brief and the rest consists of metaphysical discourses, shloka and songs. The lead singer of the pala gan is the bayati, who is supported by a group of choristers. The story is presented in the form of a dialogue. The bayati acts the roles of different characters, at times assisted by the choristers who also enact some roles. A pala turns into a JATRA when the different characters appear on stage in costume. A number of jatrapala have come down from ancient times, among them Taranisenvadhpala, Jayadhrathavadhpala, Ramjatra and Krsnajatra. Many of the stories for pala gan were inspired by the RAMAYANA and the MAHABHARATA and were very popular. Some other jatras, such as Chaitanyajatra, Vidyasundarjatra, Chandijatra and Bhasanjatra, are popular even today. With the passage of time and taste, pala gan have also undergone a number of changes in form and theme. Social and even personal events have replaced legends and stories from the Puranas as in Maifal Rajar Pala, Jamal Badshar Pala and Rajvidyar Pala. Some well-known fairy tales, such as Rupvan, have also been converted into pala gan. Pala gan originated in Mymensingh, with many of the ballads being based on real events. Charming descriptions and realistic portrayals of character are special features of these pala gan which use dialect and folk rhythms. A few of the composers whose names are known are MANSUR BAYATI (Dewana Madina), Fakir Faizu (Chhurat Jamal and Adhuya Sundari), Dvija Kanai, Chandravati, Dvija Ishan, and Sulagain. Their pala gan provide a detailed portrait of the society of their times. Many pala gan were collected by DINESH CHANDRA SEN and included in MAIMENSINGHA GITIKA and PURBABANGA-GITIKA , published by Calcutta University. Gambheera Gambhira Gan a type of folk song popular in the northwestern region of Bangladesh. Gambhira songs are assumed to have originated from the worship of the god SHIVA, who is also known as 'Gambhir'. In ancient times, gambhira used to be celebrated as puja (worship) only. In the medieval period, most Hindu communities celebrated the puja of DHARMA THAKUR (a popular god of the Hindus) on the last
- 23. three days of the Bengali year; this came to be known as the GAJAN of Shiva later on. In the past Shiva was imagined to be present at the performance. Initially, gambhira was of two kinds: the primary gambhira and the narrative gambhira. The primary gambhira would address gods and goddesses and describe human joys and sorrows, and, sometimes, important events of the year. In the narrative gambhira, every character would represent a social problem. Gambhira songs originated among the Hindu community of Maldah in WEST BENGAL. After the creation of Pakistan, Chapai Nawabganj in RAJSHAHI became the main centre of gambhira songs, which underwent major changes in theme and mode of presentation. Muslims became the custodians of this song and made it an integral part of their social life and their culture. Apart from Rajshahi, gambhira songs are also popular in NAWABGANJ and NAOGAON. At present the main characters of a gambhira are a maternal grandfather and his grandson. The performance is structured as a dialogue, interspersed with songs. Both prose and verse are used for the dialogue. The gambhira reflects contemporary social problems through witty dialogue, songs, dances and jokes. Both the actors wear lungi. The grey-bearded grandfather wears a mathal (straw hat) on his head and holds a stick in his hand. The grandson wears a torn jersey and has a gamchha (local checked towel) tied round his waist. In the past gambhira songs were sung in the measures of ektal, trital, dadra, khemta, kaharba etc. Today the tunes are influenced by songs from popular Bangla and Hindi movies. Kutubul Alam, Rakibuddin, Biren Ghosh and Mahbubul Alam of Nawabganj have made the gambhira song popular in Bangladesh by introducing new subjects and characters and interesting and witty dialogue. Kabigan Kabigan is a form of Bengali folk performance where in folk poets sing and perform. Kavigan is normally sung by two groups. Each group is led by a kaviyal or sarkar. The accompanying singers called dohars often repeat what the leader said. A kavigan programme starts with bandana (evocation) or gurudever geet (song of the sect patron). The bandana can be directed to or be in praise of Saraswati, Ganesh, people, and the audience, as deemed fit by a particular kaviyal. This is followed by Radha–Krishna related song, some call it agamani. Then songs on four subjects are sung: Sakhi sambad, biraha, lahar and kheur. Finally, the competitive part starts. In kavigan, also referred to as kabir larai, two person who are lyricist plus composer at the same time answered each other in form of songs. In his Banglar Kavigan, Sajani Kanta Das said, “Kavigan was born out of a synthesis of various art forms prevalent in different parts of Bengal at different times having peculiar names such as tarja, panchali, kheur, akhrai, half akhrai, full akhrai, danra kavigan, basa kavigan, dhap kirtan, tappa, Krishna jatra, tukkagiti etc. Various literary researchers such as Ishwar Chandra Gupta and Dr. Harekrishna Mukhopadhyay have dwelt at length on the origins and development of kavigan.
- 24. Dr. Sushil Kumar Dey opines, “The existence of kabi songs may be traced to the beginning of the 18th century or even beyond it to the 17th; but the flourishing period of the Kabiwalas was between 1760 and 1830. As the religious and ritualistic content in Bengali poetry wore out there was a tendency to break away from the traditional Vaishnava poetry but the real breakthrough came only with the introduction of the printing press in mid–18th century. From the close of the 18th century for more than half a century the new kavi–poetry and panchali reigned supreme in the Kolkata region and almost threatened to sweep everything else in literature. However, while Kavigan lost its supremacy in Kolkata, it retained its position in rural Bengal. Kabigan Music Since ancient times, there have been two different genres of music in the Indian subcontinent: marga or CLASSICAL MUSIC, based on RAGAs, and deshi or regional music. In classical music the manner of rendition is important, whereas in desi songs both words and tunes are equally so. Folk Music songs and music of a community, uninfluenced by any sophisticated musical rules or any standard MUSIC styles. Bangladesh has a rich folk music which includes both religious and secular songs. Folk music may be described as that type of ancient music which springs from the heart of a community, based on their natural style of expression uninfluenced by the rules of classical music and modern popular songs. Any mode or form created by the combination of tune, voice and dance may be described as music. Thus, the combination of folk song, folk dance, and folk tune may be called folk music. For example, BAUL songs are a combination of tune, music and dance. Folk music has the following characteristics: (i) It is composed by rural folk on the basis of ancient rules transmitted orally; (ii) These ancient rules of music have not been influenced by classical or modern music; (iii) Folk songs may be sung in groups or individually; (iv) No regular practice is required for folk music; (v) It is composed and performed by illiterate or semi-literate people; (vi) It is a spontaneous expression in easy language, local dialect, and simple tune; (vii) Both words and tune are appealing; (viii) Despite its universal appeal it uses local dialect; (ix) It depends upon nature and the rural environment; (x) It is an explicit manifestation of the joys and sorrows of daily life; (xi) It uses simple and natural rhythms; (xii) It contains a strong emotive expression of human love and separation. In Bangladesh folk music has great variety, with songs being composed on the culture, festivals, views of life, natural beauty, rivers and rural and riverine life. These songs are also about social inequality and poverty, about the material world and the supernatural. Mystical songs have been composed using the metaphors of rivers and boats. Since the country is basically riverine, the BHATIYALI forms and important genre of folk music. Folk music is formed and develops according to the environment. Differences in the natural environment are reflected in the people of the different regions. The dialects too vary across the different regions. Bangladeshi folk music therefore varies from region to region. Thus there are the northern BHAWAIYA, the eastern Bhatiyali and the southwestern Baul songs.
- 25. Folk songs may be sung individually or in chorus. Folk songs sung individually include Baul, Bhatiyali, MURSHIDI, Marfati, while songs sung in chorus include KAVIGAN, LETO, ALKAPand GAMBHIRA. Some songs are regional in character, but others are common to both Bangladesh and WEST BENGAL. Similarly, some songs belong distinctively to one religious community, Hindu or Muslim others cross religious boundaries. Some songs belong exclusively to men, others to women, while some are sung by both men and women. Thus only women compose and sing vratagan and MEYELI GIT, but both men and women participate in the 'roof-beating' songs that are sung while beating down and firming rooftops. It should be remembered that in most folk songs the tune of the constant stave and the middle staves is nearly identical. For example, the first few lines of a famous song composed by Gagan Harkara, ami kothay pabo tare/ amar maner manus ye re (Where shall I find him, the man after my heart?), illustrates the use of seven pure notes and sometimes the use of soft melody. The analysis of folk songs shows a variety of rhythms and tempo. Sari and Jhumur are sung at a quick tempo, and Bhatiyali and Bhawaiya at a delayed tempo. Name of Folk Music of Bangladesh Bhatiali, Bhawaiya, Baul and Sufi gaan, Broto Katha, Gajeer gaan,,Gomvira,,Hasan Rajar gaan, Jari gaan, Jatra gaan, Karim shaher gaan, Kirtan, pala gaan, Kobir gaan, Lalon shaher gaan, Letto gaan, Manik pirer gaan, Marfoti gaan, Meyelee geet, Murshidi, Osto gaan, Pala gaan, Polli gitee, Puthi gaan, Roof beating song, Sari gaan, Upojatio gaan Modern Songs Modern Songs originated towards the end of the eighteenth century through the TAPPA. NIDHU GUPTA's tappa were mainly love songs. Towards the end of British rule, the Kolkata station of All India Radio introduced kavyasangit or lyric songs, which were essentially modern songs. The Bangla term was for the first time used by DILIP KUMAR ROY. Dwijendragiti, Rajanikanta's songs, Atulprasad's songs, NAZRUL SONGS and experimental songs of other modern lyricists and composers were known as lyric songs. These were broadcast as modern songs for the first time by the DHAKA radio station after partition. Modern Bangla songs differ from classical music in that both words and tunes are important. In Indian classical music the musical notes are more important than the verbal expressions. Modern songs often draw ideas from the music of other countries, devise skills to apply tunes in a striking manner, avoid monotony in creating tunes, bring about variety in rhythm, etc. Modern songs also demand a knowledge of musical instruments and deftness in using them. Among the early makers of modern songs in Bengal songs were Nidhu Gupta, Kalidas Chatterjee or KALI MIRZA, Raghunath Roy and Sridhar Kathak. Nidhu Gupta composed Bangla tappa on the model of Hindustani classical tappa. This was the time when the British were building Kolkata. Foreign influence combined with local influence led to city-based music conferences and new types of music. In this sense modern Bangla songs originated in Kolkata. During the colonial rule a large number of rural people moved to Kolkata in quest of livelihood. They carried with them folk songs, KIRTAN, KAVIGAN, jatragan, ramprasadi, PANCHALI, khewur etc. The class of nouveau riche that developed in the city under the patronage of the English rulers helped induct into Kolkata music rural tunes, style and themes. Nidhu Gupta and later RABINDRANATH TAGORE ignored such music and helped create modern Bangla songs which were refined and rich in themes, expressions and tunes. This was a stream that began with Kamalakanta, Nidhubabu, Kali Mirza, DASHARATHI ROY, Gopal Ure and Sridhar Kathak and attained fulfillment in Rabindranath, Dwijendralal, Rajanikanta, Atulprasad and Nazrul. The period between the mid-19th century and the mid-20th century saw waves of social and cultural changes in the urban life of Kolkata. Among those who contributed to the new forms of music were Shourindramohan Thakur, KSHETRAMOHAN GOSWAMI, and KRISHNADHAN BANERJEE. JYOTIRINDRANATH TAGORE introduced an orchestra composed of mixed local and western tunes on 5 January 1867 at Jorasako. This set the trend for combining western tunes and instruments with local ones to provide