basic principle of veg and spices

1. Chapter 2
Basic principles of vegetable and spice
crop production
HRT 204, 3 (2+1)
Dr. Pradeep Raj Rokaya
Agriculture and Forestry University
Faculty of Agriculture
Department of Horticulture
College of Natural Resource Management (CNRM), Tikapur,
Kailali
September 3, 2020/July 19, 2021

2. What is principles ?
• Principle is a fundamental truth or a
general scientific theorem that has
numerous special applications.
• There are some principles required in the
production of vegetable crops which are
very important and well known to the
grower. These principles are:

3. What are the basic principles of vegetable
production
1. Production of vegetables is short-time investment does not
involve a long- time investment as does in the orchard of fruits
such as citrus, mango, cashew, apple, walnut, etc.
2. Vegetable growers/farmers are not bound to produce the same
crop each year like his/her counterparts, who grow fruit crops.
3. Vegetable growing lacks the stability which is methodically
developed over a period of years like an orchard thus, getting
into vegetable production is a fast process and getting out may
even be faster.
4. Vegetables can be grown by people with limited experience.
Only skilful farmers sustain their vegetable production
5. The land for production of vegetable crops is flexible and
adjustable. It is much easier for vegetable growers/farmers to
change production from one crop to another than for fruit crop
grower.
6. Cooperative efforts and organizations are somewhat more
difficult with vegetable crop producers than fruit growers.
Vegetable grower/farmers have no long period for making plans.
Vegetable production is seasonal.
7. Vegetable production requires more intensive production

4. 2.1. Classification of vegetable and spice
crops
• It is estimated that there are at least 10,000
plant species used as vegetables
worldwide although only about less than
50 of them are of great commercial value.
• In Nepal, about 60 species of vegetables
are grown, out of them only half are in
commercial stage.
• Therefore, these vegetables are classified
into the following basis.

5. A. Classification according to methods of
cultivation/culture
This is most convenient methods of classification. In this
classification, vegetable crops are placed together having
the same cultural requirements.
1. Leafy vegetable: crops used mainly for their leaves
whether eaten raw or cooked e.g., lettuce (salad),
mustard, amaranth, and celery.
2. Cole crops: crops belonging to the cabbage family
(Brassicaceae formerly Cruciferae) including Chinese
cabbage, cauliflower, and broccoli (excluding radish).
3. Cucurbits: crops belonging to the Cucurbit family to which
cucumber and the gourds belong.
4. Legumes: members of the Fabaceae formerly
Leguminosae family like cowpea: vegetable soybean,
yard-long bean, pea, and beans.
5. Root crops: bulb, and tuber crops -onions, garlic, potato,
sweet potato, radish, and carrot.
6. Solanaceous crops: tomato, eggplant, and pepper.

6. B. Classification according to botanical
system (Botanical classification)
• Botanical classification is based on the broad relationship
of plants according to similarity or dissimilarity in flower
structure. Plants can be classified starting from the
broadest grouping into Kingdom, division, sub-division,
phylum, sub-phylum, class, sub-class, order, family,
genus, and species.
• For practical purposes, a vegetable is classified starting
from the family group. The combination of genus and
species make up the scientific name of vegetables
which is accepted worldwide. Sometimes synonyms are
indicated. Plants recognized as a single vegetable, even if
they have different scientific names, are said to be of one
kind.
• The genus name is the same but the species may vary.
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
classification (Terrell et al. 1986) has been followed in
classifying plants by families, genus, and species
basically following the International Rules on

7. Table 1. Botanical classification of common vegetables in Nepal
Family Botanical name English name Nepali name
Amaranthaceae Amaranthus viridis Green amaranth Hariyo Latte
A. spinosus Spiny amaranth Kande Latte
Amaryllidaceae/Liliaceae Allium cepa Onion Pyaj
Allium sativum Garlic Lasun
Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum Leek Lik
Allium schoenoprasum Chive Chive
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Apium graveolens var. dulce Celery Ajwan/Selary
Daucus carota Carrot Gajar
Petroselinum vulgare Parsley Ajmod
Araceae Colocasia esculenta Dasheen/Taro Pindalu
Asteraceae (Compositae) Lactuca sativa Lettuce Salad /Jiriko sag
Brassicaceae (cruiciferae) Brassica oleraceae var. botritus Cauliflower Cauli or gopi
Brassica oleraceae var. capitata Cabbage Banda
Brassica oleraceae var. italica Broccoli Brocauli
Brassica oleraceae var. rapa Turnip Salagum
Brassica oleraceae var. gongylodes Knoll kohl Ganth gobi
Raphanus sativus Radish Mula
Lepidium sativum Garden cress Chamsur
Nasturtium officinale Watercress Khole sag
Brassica napus var. chinensis Pak-Choi Pak-Choy
B. oleracea var. acephala Kale Dukusag
B.oleracea var. gemmifera Brussel sprouts Brussel sprouts

8. Chenopodiaceae Beta vulgaris Beet Chukundar
Spinacea oleracea Spinach Palungo
Beta vulgaris subsp. cicla Swiss chard Swiss chard
Convolvulaceae Ipomea batatas Sweet potato Sakharkhanda
Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sativus Cucumber Kakro
Cucumis melo Musk melon Kharbuja
Citrullus vulgaris Watermelon Tarbuja
Cucurbita moschata Pumkin Pharsi
Sechium edule Chayote Skush
Lageneria siceraria Bottle gourd Lauka
Trichosanthes dioica Pointed gourd Parwar
Trichosanthes anagucia Snake gourd Chichindo
Beninecasa hispida Ash gourd Kubindo
Luffa cylindrica Sponge gourd Ghiraula
Luffa cylindrica Ridge gourd Pate ghiraula
Momordica charantia Bitter gourd Tite karela
Cucurbita pepo Squash Jukini
Cucurbita maxima Winter squash Hinde squash
Dioscoreaceae Diocorea alata Yam Tarul
Leguminaceae Pisium sativum Pea Kerau
Glycine max Soybean Bhatmas
Vigna unguiculata Cowpea Bodi
Vigna rediata Green gram Mung
Phaseolus vulgaris Bean Simi
Trigonella foenicumgraecum Fenugreek Methi
Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus Okra Bhindi
Poaceae Phyllostachys dulcis Bamboo shoot Tama
Solanaceae Solanum tuberosum Potato Alu
Solanum melongena Brinjal Bhanta
Solanum lycopersicum (Lycopersicon esculentum) Tomato Golbhenda
Capsicum annuum Chilli/pepper Khursani
Capsicum frutescens Tabasco pepper Piri khursani
Zingiberaceae Zingiber officinale Ginger Aduwa
Curcuma longa Termeric Besar

9. C. Classification according to growing
season
Most common classification of the vegetable is based on the
season whether they are grown in cool or warm temperature.
Mainly two groups of vegetables are seen.
1. Winter season/cool season crops: Crops grows under the
average temperature of 10-180
C. Some have frost and freeze
tolerance. Leaves, stems, and roots are edible portions of these
vegetables. The vegetables spinach, cabbage, parsnip, broccoli,
radish, beet, turnip, rutabaga, cauliflower, lettuce, celery,
artichoke, endive, carrot, chard, asparagus (mature plants), garlic,
kale, Brussels sprouts fall in this group.
2. Summer/rainy season: In contrast, warm-season crops exhibit a
preference for mean temperatures from 18°C to 30°C during most
of their growth and development. Warm- season vegetables are
often of tropical origin and are perennial plants, but are grown in
temperate regions as annuals. Warm-season crops are intolerant
of frost and are chilling sensitive. Brinjal, chilli, okra, cucumber,
pumpkin, gourds, tomato, broad leaf mustard, pepper, snap bean,
squash, pumpkin, lima bean, muskmelon, watermelon, sweet
potato, eggplant, okra, asparagus (mature plants), garlic, kale,
Brussels sprouts fall under this group.

10. D. Classification according to parts used
1. Underground parts: i. Roots-Usually a long or
round-shaped taproot such as beet, rutabaga, carrot,
turnip, radish, parsnip, salsify, celeriac, etc. Some have
enlarged lateral root; e.g. sweet potato, cassava, etc. ii.
Bulb: Onion and garlic, iii. Tuber: Potato, iv. Rizhome:
Ginger and turmeric, v. Corm: Colocasia and
amorphophallus
2. Stem: The edible stalks of plants when the stalk is the
main part of the vegetable e.g. bamboo shoots,
asparagus, celery, kohlrabi, etc.
3. Leaf: The edible leaves of plants. The leaves of onion
group-leaf bases eaten (except chives); e.g. onion, garlic,
leek, chive, shallot, etc are used. Broad-leaved plants,
salad use; e.g. lettuce, chicory, celery (petiole only),
endive, cabbage; cooked (may include tender stems in
some); e.g. spinach, kale, chicory, chard, vegetable
amaranth, Chinese cabbage, mustard, dandelion, cardoon
(petiole only), rhubarb (petiole only)

11. D. Classification according to parts used
4. Flowers: The matured and immature flowers of
certain vegetables of cauliflower, broccoli, globe
artichoke, etc.
5. Fruit: Vegetable fruit are fleshy and contain
seeds. Immature; e.g. pea, chayote, okra, snap
bean, summer squash, sweet corn, lima bean,
cucumber, eggplant, broad bean, Mature; e.g.
gourd family (cucurbits: pumpkin, winter squash,
muskmelon, watermelon), tomato family
(tomato, pepper, husk tomato).
6. Seeds: (Legumes) apart from sweet corn,
seeds grow in pods which are sometimes eaten
along with the seed such as bean (green,
French, butter, snake), broad bean, pea, snow
pea, sweet corn, etc.

12. E. Classification according to hardiness
(thermo-classification)
• The vegetables are grouped according to their ability
to withstand frost and this class helps to know the
season of cultivation of vegetables and is classified in
three classes.
• Hardy vegetables (withstand frost without any injury):
Broccoli, cabbage, pea, Brussels sprout, garlic, onion,
leek, radish, spinach, turnip, parsley etc.
• Semi-hardy vegetables (Generally they are not
injured by light frost): Carrot, cauliflower, potato,
celery, lettuce, beet, palak etc.
• Tender vegetables (cannot withstand frost and are
even killed by light frost): Tomato, chilli, brinjal,
cucumber, okra and all cucurbits, pea, French bean,
sweat potato, cassava, yam drumstick, elephant foot,

13. G. Classification according to salt
tolerance
1. High salt tolerance: 7,700 ppm such as
beets, kale, asparagus, spinach
2. Medium salt tolerance: 6,400 ppm such as
tomato, broccoli, cabbage, peppers,
cauliflower, lettuce, sweet corn, white potato,
carrot, onion, peas, squash, cucumber,
cantaloupe.
3. Low salt tolerance: 2,600 ppm such as
radish, green bean, etc. And all other
vegetable tolerate at 1900 ppm.

14. H. Classification according to tolerance to soil
acidity
1. Slightly tolerant: Vegetables grow at pH
6.8–6.0 such as asparagus, celery, muskmelon,
beet, spinach, New Zealand spinach, broccoli,
Chinese cabbage, okra, cabbage, leek, onion,
cauliflower, lettuce, spinach, etc.
2. Moderately tolerant: Vegetables grow at pH
6.8–5.5 such as Bean, horseradish, pumpkin,
Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi, radish, carrot,
parsley, squash, cucumber, pea, tomato,
eggplant, pepper, turnip, garlic, etc.
3. Very tolerant: Vegetables grow at pH 6.8–5.0
such as chicory, rhubarb, endive, sweet potato,
potato, watermelon, etc.

15. I. Classification by root depth into soil
1. Shallow (<80 cm) Cabbage, lettuce,
onion, potato, spinach, sweet corn, etc.
2. Medium (80–160 cm): Beans, beets,
carrot, cucumber, eggplant, summer
squash, peas, etc.
3. Deep (>160 cm): Globe artichoke,
asparagus, sweet potato, tomato, etc.

16. J. Classification according to fresh vr.
processed
One of the most common classifications of
vegetables is whether they are consumed fresh
or processed. Since vegetables are perishable,
they are often canned, frozen or dried for
long-term preservation.
1. Fresh: some vegetables are used as raw just
after washing and cleaning such as cabbage,
cauliflowers, bottle gourd, snake gourd, pointed
gourd, watermelon, muskmelon, etc.
2. Processed: some vegetables are used as
canned, frozen and dried form such as radish
and green leafy vegetables as gundruk, tomato
as ketchup and sauces, carrot and radish are as
pickles, etc.

17. K. According to their maturity time and
growth habit
1. Vegetables with short growing period and
harvested two or three times by topping or
young leaf removal: This group consists of leafy
vegetables such as Amaranthus spp and Celosia
argentea.
2. Vegetables which can be harvested over several
weeks or months: This group comprises of
vegetables such as Corchorus spp, Solanum spp,
Capsicum spp., Tomato, Okra, and Cucurbits.
3. Vegetables with climbing growth habit: these are
vegetables which are trained along a stake and on
house walls. Examples are snake gourd, pumpkin,
cucumber, etc.
4. Vegetables with creeping stems: such as melon,

18. L. Classification according to photo
period requirement
Vegetables are grouped according to the period for
which the light is available. The response of plants
to light for induction of flowering is called
photo-periodism and based on it vegetables are
classified in three groups:
1. Long day vegetables and shorter night (8 -10
hours of dark): Onion, cabbage, cauliflower,
potato, radish, lettuce, knolkhol, turnip, carrot.
2. Short day vegetables (10- 14 hours dark):
Sweet potato, lablab bean, winger bean, cluster
bean.
3. Day neutral vegetables (Photo insensitive):
Tomato, brinjal, chilli, okra, frenchbean,

19. M. Classification according to life cycle
1. Annual: vegetables complete their life cycle within
one year or one season such as tomatoes, peppers
(capsicum), radishes, eggplants, okra, beans, peas,
pumpkins, squash, cucumbers, lettuce, mustards,
safflowers, sunflowers, amaranth, grains of all sorts,
and peanuts.
2. Biennial: grows vegetative in the first year they are
then flower & set seed the following years. Biennial
vegetable crops include cabbage, carrots, beets,
turnips, etc.
3. Perennials: Perennials grow and set seeds for
multiple years and may not the first year planted (or
longer). Asparagus, chayote, watercress, Jerusalem
Artichokes, horseradish, yams and sweet potatoes,

20. N. Classification according to climatic
requirement/climatic zone
• Vegetables are grouped into three groups
based on their climatic requirements.
1. Tropical vegetables: Tomato, brinjal
cucumber, okra, French bean, cowpea, most of
cucurbits, amaranthus, cluster bean, etc.
2. Sub-tropical vegetables: Okra, cucumber,
brinjal, chilli, tomato, gourds (all), ginger,
turmeric, cowpea, etc.
3. Temperate vegetable crops: Cauliflower,
cabbage, broccoli, radish, carrot, turnip,
spinach, onion, garlic, pea, fenugreek, potato,
asparagus and rhubarb, etc.

21. 2.2. Off-season and protected cultivation of
vegetable crops
Off-season vegetable cultivation
• Cultivation of fresh vegetables after or before their
normal season is called as off season vegetable
cultivation.
• This means that the cultivation of vegetable crops outside
their regular cropping calendar.
• The concept of off season vegetable cultivation is a bit new
to the growers and thus, they don’t have complete
knowledge regarding it.
• This is one of the modern practices which can give farmer
higher profit and satisfy the requirement of consumers at
anytime anywhere with more choices.
• The main objective of off season vegetable cultivation is to
produce and supply the vegetables to the market during
their lean period to fetch higher price.
• Sometime, it is called as vegetable forcing because
vegetables are produced forcedly through creating special
artificial structure to provide favourable environment.

22. Vegetable Forcing
• It is the method of growing the vegetables out of their
normal season in net houses, green houses, glass
houses, cold frames, hot beds, and under other
artificial growing conditions.
• These advanced and controlled artificial structures
admit the favourable environmental conditions like
light, temperature, and relative humidity for optimum
growth and development of the plant.
• Hydroponics, sometimes called soilless culture,
allows the grower to practice automatic watering and
fertilizing, thus reducing the cost of labour.
• To successfully compete with other fresh market
producers, greenhouse vegetable growers must
either produce crops when the outdoor supply is
limited or produce quality products commanding
premium prices.

23. Vegetable Forcing
• Tomato, cucumber and capsicum are commonly grown
vegetables under these structures.
• These are mostly used during winter in the temperate
regions. These crops cannot be grown without protection
for their availability throughout year.
• In Nepal, most of the vegetables are grown as winter crop
in terai and as summer crops in hilly area; hence,
production of the one geographic region is an off-season
to another part of the region.
• River bed cultivation is a type of vegetable forcing i.e.
growing of summer vegetables on river beds during winter
months with the help of organic manures and wind breaks
of dry grass.
• Sometimes, for early produce seedlings of tomato, brinjal,
bell-pepper, chilli and cucurbits in poly-bags are forced to
germinate in small protected structures.

24. Features of off-seasonal/forced vegetable
cultivation
The following are the characteristics of off
season/force vegetable cultivation
a) Cost of production is higher than other method
of vegetable production.
b) Various structures viz., green house, cold
frames etc are required for forcing vegetables.
c) The cultivation is most intensive.
d) It requires special technical knowledge.
e) Environment is controlled artificially.
f) It is a sort of specialized demand oriented
programme. Few vegetable crops such as
tomatoes, cucumbers, peas, asparagus etc are
grown in this type of farming.

25. Advantages of off season vegetable
cultivation
1. It gives the higher income than other crops
grown in normal season.
2. It gives the fresh production and nutrition to
the consumers in off-season.
3. It produces the exportable items and earns
foreign currency.
4. It generates the employment and skill at local
level.
5. It provides the special technique to the
growers.
6. It leads in commercial farming.

26. Disadvantages of off-season vegetable
cultivation
1. It requires highly specialized techniques
2. Sometimes it becomes a risky business
due to incidence of disease and pests.
3. It requires regular supervision.
4. It is possible in a commercial scale.
5. Initial investment becomes high.

27. Off-season vegetable production in Nepal
There are different ways of off-season vegetable
production
1. Protected Cultivation
• Protection cultivation is a technique of growing vegetable
partially or fully controlled environment as per plant needs.
The various types of protective cultivation practices have
been adopting based upon the prevailing climatic
condition.
• Among them, greenhouse/poly-house is extremely useful
for round-the-year vegetable cultivation in temperate
condition.
• In protected cultivation, temperature, CO2
concentration,
relative humidity, weeds, insect pests, and diseases are
controlled.
• The degree of controlled condition is varying with the
structured materials.
• Advanced measuring equipments are fitted to reach the

28. Advantages of protected
condition
1. Crops can be grown round the year.
2. Higher productivity can be achieved (10
times more).
3. Quality of production is superior (disease
and pest incidence is reduced).
4. Management and monitoring is easy.

29. Disadvantages of protected cultivation
1. High expertise is needed
2. Initial investment is high
3. Technology intensive

30. Types of protected structures
i. Greenhouse
• Greenhouse is a structured building for growing
plants under the controlled conditions.
• The building has no green colour but the name it gets
the name from the fact that green plants are grown
under the house. It is covered with the transparent
materials and as such permits the natural light.
• The covering materials consist of glass, fibre glass,
and plastic film. Glass has the highest initial cost, but
it has long term depreciation advantages.
• Fibre glass once, only good for several years'
exposure which is available with special coating that
extends its life up 20 years.
• Polythene films are much cheaper than fibre glass
but their breakdown upon exposure to ultra violet
light necessitates replacement once a year.

31. Principle of greenhouse
• In greenhouse, sunlight passes
through a transparent covering
materials i.e. glass or plastic.
• This sunlight is absorbed by
vegetable plants and the plant
material inside the greenhouse
is turn emit long wave thermal
radiations for which covering
material has lower transparency
resulting there by trapping of
solar energy and raising the
temperature at 10-20 0
C inside
the greenhouse.
• This is popularly known as
greenhouse effect.

32. ii. Hot frames or Hotbeds
• A bed of soil enclosed by transparent
materials and heated to provide a
warm medium for germination of seeds
or rooting of cuttings.
• The hot bed is often used for the same
purpose as a green house but it is
used for small scale.
• Seedlings can be started and leafy
cuttings rooted in such structures early
in the season.
• Heat is provided artificially below the
propagating medium by electric heating
cables, hot water, steam pipes, or hot
air flues.
• Close attention must be paid to
shading and ventilation, as well as
temperature and humidity control.

33. iii. Cold frame
• Cold frame is almost identical that
of hotbeds, except that there no
provision is made for supplying
artificial heat.
• A primary use of this structure is
in conditioning or hardening
rooted cuttings or young seedlings
preceding field, nursery row or
container planting.
• They may also may used for
starting new plant in late spring,
summer, or fall when no artificial
supply of heat is necessary.
• In cold frames, only the heat of
the sun is utilized through the
transparent materials.

34. 2. Modification of growing conditions
• In temperature and sub-tropical region,
during winter, the constraint of vegetable
production is low temperature.
• The following structures are used to
produce off-season vegetables.

35. i. Plastic tunnels: It easiest and cheapest methods of
controlling environment by using polythene sheets. About
one meter raised beds are prepared and bamboo stakes
are bent over it to make a semi-circular shape and
polythene sheets are put over this structure. This structure
seemed like a tunnel. This is practiced to produce
off-season for summer crops in winter. Generally, a tunnel
of 20x5 m2
or 30x4 m2
or as per need is practiced as walk
in tunnel.
• Walk in tunnels are the temporary structures erected by
using G.I. pipes and transparent plastic. Walk in tunnels
are used for complete off season cultivation of vegetables
like bottle gourd, summer squash, cucumber etc. during
winter season (Dec.- mid February) the basic objective
and utility of walk in tunnels is to fetch high price of the
complete off season produce to earn more profit per unit
area. The ideal size of a walk in tunnel of 4.0 m width and
30m length (120 m2
) and total cost of fabrication may be
Rs.12000-14000/-.

36. ii. Poly house: A polythene house of certain sized
can be constructed by using polythene sheets,
bamboo stakes or galvanized iron pipes. The tall
growing crops like cucumbers can be grown
under it.
iii. Green house: A structure of glass or
poly-house, where the temperature and humidity
are maintained in controlled condition.
iv. Using poly-bag: In winter, poly bags are used
to germinate vegetable seed especially for
cucurbits under tunnels and after 1-1.5 month,
seedlings are transplanted in main field.

37. 3. Selecting the appropriate place:
• by selecting appropriate place such as high
hills off-season for terai and terai for high
hills.
• Normally, vegetable are planted during
October to June in terai which are off season
products for hills where cold climate is
occurred.
• Likewise, vegetables are grown during June
to September in hills which are off-season
for terai.

38. 4. Adjustment of planting/sowing time
• With the adjustment of planting time the
vegetable can be grown in off-season e.g.
in summer, vegetable are sown 2 months
earlier than the normal season for early
crop.
• Generally, cucurbitaceous crops are
forced in the late winter at the seedling
stage and transplanted in open field for
early crop.

39. 5. Use of improved varieties with
different maturity
• The use of improved varieties which can avoid
or tolerate the limiting factors can prolong the
production and supply.
• For example, cauliflower, a early cultivar i.e.
Pusa Dipali becomes ready to harvest in
September when planted early whereas
Kathmandu Local becomes ready for
harvesting in November-December and
Swonbal-16 variety (late variety) becomes
ready for harvesting in January-February.

40. 6. Use of different agro-climatic
conditions
• Generally, vegetables are grown during normal
season in one climatic region and marketed as
off-season in other climatic regions.
• For example, in high altitude, Tistung and
Palung, the farmers produce cauliflower,
cabbage, and radish, leafy vegetables during
summer and rainy seasons and supply to the
markets of Kathmandu valley, Pokhara, and
Terai.
• Similarly, the farmers of lower hills and terai
produce tomato, brinjal, sweet pepper and
cucumber during winter and spring and supply to
the markets of mid and high hills as off-season.

41. 2.3. Nursery care and management
• Vegetables can be grown by two propagation methods; seeds
and vegetative methods.
• Most vegetable species are grown from seeds, but some
important ones are propagated by vegetative methods.
• In seeding, some vegetables are seeded directly in the main
field and some vegetables planted after nursery sown in nursery
beds, boxes or containers and are transplanted at a later stage.
• Garden cress, spinach, bean, pea, cow pea, radish, carrot,
turnip, pumpkins, squash, melons, and potato are some of the
examples of vegetable sowing directly in the field.
• However, other vegetables like Cole crops (Cauliflowers,
cabbage, broccoli, etc), broad leaf mustard, Swiss chard,
Lettuce, Celery, onion, asparagus, tomato, egg plant, chilli,
capsicum, and leeks should be sown first in nursery and then
transplanted in the main field.
• Therefore, management of nursery is an important work to
produce healthy and desired seedlings for maximum production.
• Nursery: A nursery is a place where young plants are raised
under intensive care before transplanting into the field.

42. Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages of nursery are:
• Economy of seeds Fewer seeds are needed for raising seedlings in the
nursery than for direct sowing in the field
• High germination: Germination rate might be more than 80%.
• Uniformity of growth: The plants would be in similar size, shape, and
height.
• Selection of seedlings: You can select vigorous, pest and disease free
seedlings for transplanting.
• Better care of seedlings: The seedlings in the nursery receive more
intensive care particularly protection from damages by pest, diseases
and weeds than when they are seeded directly on the field.
• Quality production: Insect pests and diseases free plant materials can
be achieved.
• Protection from external disasters: Nursery protects from the natural
disasters such as hailstones, frost, heavy rainfall, drought, snow, storm,
flood, endemic situation of insect pests and diseases, etc.
Disadvantage
• Costly business: Specialized skilled labour, special tools and materials
are needed

43. Factors determining nursery location
A numbers of factors should be considered during the nursery
establishment.
1. Environment favourably: Nursery site should have good
sunshine, frost free, hailstone free, flood free, optimum
temperature and relative humidity.
2. Water supply: Nursery should be located near source of water,
particularly from wells, boreholes, streams, rivers or pipe-borne
water. Cheap water supply reduces the operating cost in the
nursery.
3. Accessibility: The nursery should be easily accessible to the
field, to the road or market.
4. Slope or land gradient: Level land is ideal for establishment
and maintenance of a nursery. It reduces the risk of soil erosion.
It also enhances application of irrigation water. However,
appropriate conservation methods should be undertaken if a
nursery is sited on a sloppy land.
5. Soil: Nursery soil should be fertile, well drain and non-toxic and
free from pests, diseases and weeds.
6. Labour supply: Nursery should be located where experienced
and skilled labours are available or where they can be trained.

44. Nursery Tools and their uses
1. Cutlass or Machete: Cutlass is used for clearing the nursery site. It may
also be used for transplanting seedlings and digging holes.
2. Hoe: It is mainly used for making heaps, ridges and nursery beds. It is
also very effective for turning up the soil, loosening the soil surface and to
destroy weeds.
3. Hand trowel: It is used for transplanting seedlings from the nursery to the
field and for spreading manure and also for digging shallow holes on the
beds.
4. Garden fork: It is used for turning manure during compost making and for
spreading manure in the open field. It is also used for loosening the soil
before transplanting.
5. Digging mattock: It is used for digging and uprooting small stumps
6. Rake: A rake is used for levelling soil surface and breaking large soil
crumbs into small ones. It is also used for removing stones and weeds
from seedbeds and for covering vegetable seeds when they are
broadcast.
7. Garden line: It is used for lining up beds and for making straight line when
planting.
8. Watering can: It is used for sprinkling water over young seedlings and for
irrigation during dry season farming.
9. Tape: A tape is used for taking short or detailed measurement on the field.
10. Ranging pole: It is used for marking surveyed stations or intermediate

45. Preparation, care, and management of
nursery
1. Site selection
• The most and foremost step of nursery management is
site selection. The critical points needed to be
considered while selecting nursery site are:
• Site should be open not shady area.
• Site selected should be well drained, and free from
water logging.
• There should be proper sunlight.
• The nursery should be near the water supply so that
irrigation can be easy.
• The area should be well protected from pet and wild
animals.
• Nursery should be near to demand area.

46. 2. Selection and preparation of tools and
equipments
• Different tools and equipments are needed
to clearing and digging the selected land
for nursery bed.
• Cutlal, knife, hoe, spade, watering can,
tape, rake, garden fork, etc are prepared.

47. 3. Soil and soil preparation
• After the selecting nursery site and preparing the tools
and equipments, nursery should be well prepared. A land
should be well ploughed or dug followed by planting and
cleaning. Soil media should be prepare as mixture of one
part soil, one part of sand and one part of farm yard
manure. The recommended dose of fertilizers should be
incorporated.
• Raising of vegetable seedlings requires fertile and healthy
soil.
• The soil for nursery should be loam to sandy loam, loose
and friable, rich in organic matter and well drained.
• The soil pH
should be close to the neutral i.e. about 7.0
• It needs a deep cultivation of the nursery land either by
soil turning plough or by spade and subsequent 2-3
hoeing with cultivator.
• After that all the clots, stones and weeds from the field
should be removed and land should be levelled.

48. Treatment of soil against pathogens
A. Soil solarisation: Suitable Time period is
May-June as temperature rises up to 450
C at
this time. Wet the soil with water, or saturate
it with water. Spread white polythene of 200
gauges on the whole nursery area for about
5-6 weeks. The margin of the polythene
should be covered by wet soil (compressed
mud) to check the entry of air. After 5-6
weeks remove the polythene sheet and
sowing is done.

49. Treatment of soil against pathogens
B. Formalin Solution treatment (Formalin dust
treatment): This treatment should be done
15-20 days before seed sowing. Prepare
formalin solution (1.5 to 2%) in one container
and drench the soil @ 4-5 litre of water per
square meter soil surface to saturate it up to a
depth of 15-20 cm. Cover the drench area with
polythene sheet of 200 gauge. Put the wet soil
on the margin of the covered polythene sheet
so as it does not allow the polythene film blown
away by the wind and air from the covered
area to out side. Removes the cover
(polythene) after 15 days. Prepare the beds for
seed sowing.

50. Treatment of soil against pathogens
C. Application of fungicides: Generally used fungicides:
Captan, Thiram which kill the soil borne pathogens. Use
5-6 g of any of the fungicides per square meter nursery
area.
D. Insect Control: Reason of such application: Presence
of certain insect pest and their egg or secondary stage
insects present in the soil which can infect the seedlings
in the later stage. To save the seedlings against them,
some insecticides are also used as soil treatment.
Recommended insecticide is Chlorpyriphos @ 2 ml/ liter
of water. Dig 15 to 20 cm in the nursery soil and then
prepared the beds for seed sowing.
E. Steam treatment: Hot steam can be used to treat the
soil against harmful insect pest. For this, cover the
required area with the help of polythene sheet and stop
the movement of air in the covered area. Supply the hot
steam for at least 4-6 hours continuously. This way all the
harmful pathogen and insect pest will be killed.

51. 4. Preparation of nursery bed
• Nursery bed is prepared according to season and
crop.
• In the rainy season raised beds are prepared but in
the winter and summer season flat beds should be
prepared.
• If the seedlings are to be raised in boxes during
unfavourable weather condition, the flower pots,
polythene bags, potting plugs, wooden treys, earthen
pots etc. may be used.
• Prepare soil mixture in the ratio of 1:1:1 of soil, sand
and well rotten FYM/leaf mould etc. and fill the
mixture in these seedlings raising structure.
• Arrangement should be made to drain excess water
from these structures by making a hole in the bottom
of all types of pots.

52. 4. Preparation of nursery bed
• Raised bed: A bed of 1m wide and 3-5 m or as per
need length should be made. The height of the
nursery bed should be about 15 cm.
• One to several beds as can be prepared according to
size of business. In between the two beds, 30 cm
space path cum drainage should be prepared.
• These prepared beds sometimes can be treated with
40% formalin for one week as a soil treatment.
• The soil of the bed should be dug 1-2 times to make
friable, free from weeds and clods, and uniform of
bed level.
• Then, 10 kg well decomposed FYM, 5 g urea, 5 g
DAP, and 5 g MoP per square meter should be
added to the soil. If the soil is heavy mix 2-3 kg sand
per square meter so that the seed emergence may
not be hampered.

53. 4. Preparation of nursery bed contd..
• Both methods of sowing i.e. broadcasting and line sowing are
used. Sometimes, broadcasting method can be practiced
however, uneven distribution of sown seeds and poor quality of
seedlings by broadcasting method, line sowing is chosen.
• Line sowing is the best method for nursery. Lines are made 1 to
2 cm deep parallel to the width at a distance of 5 cm from the
line and seeds are sown or placed singly at a distance of about 1
cm apart. Lines are made with the help of rope and hoe across
the bed. Seeds are prepared according to size of main field to be
planted.
• A required seed should be treated with fungicides and then
seeds should be sown along the lines at the depth of 1-2 cm
keeping the seed vertically. These sown seeds should be
covered with fine sand or soil or FYM. Light irrigation is provided
to the sown seeds on bed. A thatch is made to protect external
harmful environment.
• B. Flat and sunken bed: This nursery bed is needed for winter
or drought condition. Flat bed of 1x3-5 m or sunken bed of
1mX3mX10cm sunken bed is prepared.

54. 5. Care and management of seedlings
i. Seed cover
• The sown seeds either by broadcasting or lining
required to cover for better emergence. Therefore,
a mixture of sand: soil:
• FYM in the ratio of 1:1:1 is prepared, well mixed
together and treated with any method of soil
treatment as discussed above.
• It will be better to treat this mixture while treating
the nursery soil. Apply 2-3 g bavistin or diathane
M-45 or thiram or captan per kg mixture if, it is not
treated.
• Care should be taken that every seed is well
covered by seed covering material.

55. ii. Mulching and removal of mulch
• To maintain the soil moisture for seed germination cover
the
• seed bed with a thin layer of mulch of paddy straw or
sugar cane trash, or sarkanda or any organic mulch during
hot weather and by plastic mulch (plastic sheet) in cool
weather. It has following advantages:
• It maintains the soil moisture and temperature for better
seed germination.
• It suppresses the weeds.
• Protects from direct sunlight and raindrops.
• Protects against bird damage.
• Remove the mulch: Due attention is given to remove the
covered mulch from the seedbed. After three days,
observe the seed beds daily. As and when the white
thread like structure is seen above the ground, remove the
mulch carefully to avoid any damage to emerging
plumules. Always remove mulch in the evening hours to
avoid harmful effect of bright sun on newly emerging

56. iii. Shade management
• After seed germination during the seedling
growth, if there is very high temperature (>
30 0
C) then beds should be covered by
50% or 60% shedding nets of green/green
+ black coloured, about 60 - 90 cm above
ground by the use of suitable support.
• Shading by making thatch from local
materials at a height of 1 m of paddy straw
or wheat straw can be effective.

57. iv. Watering
• The nursery beds require light irrigation with
the help of rose can till the seeds get
germinated.
• Excess rainwater or irrigated water should be
drained out from the field as and when it is
required otherwise plants may die due to
excess of water.
• Watering in the beds depends upon the
weather condition. If temperature is high,
open irrigation is applied.
• Need not to irrigate the beds during rainy
days. Irrigation is done in the evening.

58. v. Thinning
• It is an important operation to remove weak,
unhealthy, diseased, insect pests damaged
and dense plants from the nursery beds
keeping distance of about 0.5 to 1.0 cm from
plant to plant.
• The thinning facilitates balance light and air to
each and every plant.
• It also helps in watching the diseased and
insect pest attacked plants while moving
around the nursery.

59. vi. Weeding
• Timely weeding in nursery is very important
to get healthy seedling.
• If there are some weeds in the seed bed,
remove them manually either by hand or by
hand hoe (thin forked Khurpi).
• Pre-emergence herbicides can also be
sprayed soon after seed sowing to control
the weeds. Stomp @ 3 ml/litre of water
should be sprayed on the nursery beds after
the seed sowing and seed covering with
mixture of FYM, soil and sand.

60. vii. Plant protection
• Adaptation of plant protection measures in
the nursery against the incidence of insect
pest and diseases is very important task to
get the healthy seedlings.
• Damping off seedlings, leaf curl, leaf blight
diseases and leaf miner and borer infect the
seedling in the nursery.
• The care for controlling them time to time is
essential.

61. a. Damping off
• This is very serious disease of nursery. Pre-emergence death of
seeds is seen. In first instance girdling takes place on the stem
near base of the stem and seedlings bent down near the ground
and die.
• The causal organisms are pythium, phytopthora, rhizoctonia
and Fusarium fungi.
• Treat the nursery bed either by soil solarization, formalin solution
or formalin dust or fungicides like thiram or captan as discussed
earlier.
• Treat the seeds as discussed in seed treatment. If the disease
appear after the seed emergence drench the nursery beds with
0.1% solution of brassicol or 0.7% captan or thiram after
germination.
• It will be better to remove and burried the affected seedlings from
the beds otherwise spread will be more.
• The disease can be controlled to some extent by applying treated
sand, soil and FYM mixture up to the level from where the
seedlings are falling.

62. b. Leaf minor
• It is very small sized insect enter in the leaves
from margin side and move from one place to
other by eating the chlorophyll.
• Initially the infected part of the leaves become
brown and later on dry.
• Management: Spray 4% neem seed kernal
extract on the plants (crush 40 g of neem seed
kernal, add some water and allow them for
overnight.
• In the morning filter the extract and makeup the
volume 1000 ml.).
• Spray Monocrotophos or Metasystox 1.5 ml/litre
of water.

63. c. Raising of virus free seedlings
• Leaf curl is a white fly transmitted viral disease, infestation starts
from seedling stage and continue till harvest of the crop.
• The disease is specially seen in the tomato and sometime in chilli
too and causes great loss of the crop.
• The leaves of affected plants show curling, mottling, rolling
puckering etc.
• It can be controlled by the following ways: Treat the soil of the
nursery by carbofuran 3-5 g/sqm.
• Seed treatment with Imidachloprid @ 2.5 g/kg seed. Cover the
seed bed after seed sowing by Agronet making a tunnel like
structure. Spray the nursery beds 15 days after seed germination
at 7 days interval with Metasytox or Monocrotophos @ 1.5 ml/litre
of water.
• Last spray is done 2 days before transplanting.
• Remove the infected plants if any in the field and burried in with
soil or burn.
• In this way the raised seedlings will be healthy and free from viral
diseases.

64. Germination time of some vegetable
crops
Table 2. Germination time of some vegetable crops
Vegetable crops Days
Amaranthus spp Amaranthus 20
Celosia argenteaL Celosia 21-28
Corchorus olitorius Jute mallow 21-28
Brassica oleracea L Cabbage 25-35
Solanum aethiopicum L Garden egg 30-40
Solanum melongena L Egg plant 30-50
Capsicum annuum L Sweet pepper 35-45
Capsicum frutescens L Hot pepper 35-45
Solanum lycopersicon Mill Tomato 25-35
Daucus carota L Carrot 25-30
Allium cepa L Onion 45-55

65. 6. Hardening of young plants
• Hardening is a physical physiological process of
treatment that makes the tissues firm to withstand
unfavourable environment like low temperature,
high temperature and hot dry wind.
• At this stage, plants accumulate more
carbohydrates reserves and produce additional
cuticles on the leaves.
• In this process seedlings are given some artificial
shocks at least 7-10 days before uprooting and
transplanting.
• These shocks includes exposure to the full
sunlight, removal of all the shedding nets,
polythene sheets, irrigation is stopped slowly and
slowly.

66. Techniques of hardening
• The hardening is done by the following
ways.
• By holding the watering to the plant by 5-7
days before transplanting
• Lowering the temperature also retards the
growth and adds to the hardening
processes.
• By application of 4000 ppm NaCl with
irrigation water or by spraying of 2000 ppm
of cycocel.

67. Duration and degrees of hardening
• It is very necessary that plants should be
hardened according to their kind so that there
is an assurance of high percentage of survival
and slow growth under the condition to be
expected at the time of transplanting.
• Hardening should be gradual to prevent or
check the growth.
• Warm season crops like tomato, brinjal and
chillies do not favour severe hardening. In
Indian condition allowing the soil to become
dry for 5-6 days does the hardening.

68. Effect of hardening
• The following effect may be observed by the
hardening
• Hardening improves the quality and modifies the
nature of colloids in the plant cell enabling them to
resist the loss of water.
• Hardening increases the presence of dry matter
and regards in the plants but decrease the
percentage of freezable water and transpiration
per unit area of leaf. Decreases the rate of growth
in the plants.
• Hardened plants can withstand better against
unfavourable weather conditions like hot day
winds or low temperature. Hardening of the plants
increases the waxy covering on the leaves of
cabbage.

69. 7. Transplanting
• Seedlings are ready to transplant at 4-6
weeks after sowing.
• A heavy irrigation should be provided just
before the transplanting.
• Transplanting is done during the evening
when the temperature is mild.