The document defines and discusses various types of nutrients including their functions, sources, and importance. It covers water, carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and energy. Key points include water being the most important nutrient, carbohydrates providing energy, protein building tissues, and fat storing energy and absorbing vitamins. The different types and roles of essential nutrients are examined in detail.

2. “ a substance that must be consumed as part of the diet to provide a source of energy, material for growth, or substances to regulate growth or energy production.” - Bantam Medical Dictionary

3. “ a raw or processed agricultural commodity or other nutrient source” - SACN, 5 th Ed.

4. Essential “Non-dispensable” Body cannot produce Non-Essential “Dispensable” The body can produce Conditionally Essential Required during certain physiologic or pathologic conditions

5. Supply energy Cofactors in metabolic chemical reactions Transport substances throughout body Regulate body temperature Impact food palatability Form structural components of the body

6. Water Carbohydrates Protein Fat Minerals Vitamins Antioxidants* Energy Producing Nutrients

7. Most important nutrient Body composition ~ 70% of fat-free body weight Functions: Solvent Transports materials Chemical reactant (hydrolysis) Supports blood volume and pressure Regulates body temperature Provides shape to body

8. * Loss of 15% results in death How Water Gets Into an Animal Metabolizable Ingested Breakdown of carbohydrates, protein, fat as used for energy Free Water Routes of Water Loss Urine, Feces, Respiration, Perspiration, Milk,

9. Water Content Varies by Nutrient Carbohydrates 0.6 grams of water per gram of carbohydrate Protein 0.4 grams of water per gram of protein Fat 0.2 grams of water per gram of fat

10. What types of things influence the amount of water an animal needs?

11. Species Environment (climate, air movement, etc.) Food type and source Diet composition (high protein, fiber, mineral salts) Life stage and lifestyle Water quality

12. Total Dissolved Solids Index for measuring water quality More dissolved solids, decreased water quality 6 most common minerals present in water are chloride, sodium, calcium, magnesium, sulfates and bicarbonate Other factors: pesticides, pathogens, bacteria, algae, protozoa < 2,500 mg/L dissolved solids desired

13. Energy: “the ability to do work” -SACN, p.26 Calorie: amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 °C. Kilocalorie = 1000 calories

14. All living cells require energy After water, energy is most critical requirement in nutrition Carbohydrates, Protein, Fat provide energy from the diet Not all of consumed energy is used

15. GROSS ENERGY (GE) DIGESTIBLE ENERGY (DE) METABOLIZABLE ENERGY (ME)

16. Gross Energy (GE) Total amount of heat produced when feed is burnt completely GE determines total energy content of a feed, but doesn’t equal amount of energy available to the animal GROSS ENERGY (GE)

17. Digestible Energy (DE) the energy remaining after the energy lost in feces is subtracted from the gross energy Measure of the energy absorbed from the feed after consumption Not a true measure, some energy is from tissue sloughing from the GI tract DIGESTIBLE ENERGY (DE)

18. Digestible Energy DIGESTIBLE ENERGY = Gross Energy – Fecal energy losses Image source: Dr. Geneva Acor, Hill’s Pet Nutrition, Inc.

19. Metabolizable Energy (ME) Energy available to the animal after energy from feces, urine, and gases has been subtracted from the gross energy More accurate than DE for estimating amount of energy available to animal Expensive: feeding trials METABOLIZABLE ENERGY (ME)

20. Metabolizable Energy METABOLIZABLE ENERGY = Gross Energy – Fecal, Urine, Gas losses Digestible Energy Image source: Dr. Geneva Acor, Hill’s Pet Nutrition, Inc. Gross Energy

22. Most accurately predicts amount of energy available to the animal Has been determined on a few feedstuffs Used widely in formulating diets for ruminant species

23. Method for estimating energy content in a feed Food is fed and all dietary components are measured Amount of dietary components in feces is measured

24. Digestible crude protein + digestible crude fiber + digestible nitrogen free extract ( starches and sugars) + 2.25 X Digestible ether extract ( fat) TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS

25. WHAT CHARACTERISTICS OF A FEED MIGHT AFFECT ITS DIGESTIBILITY?

26. Maturity of plant material- as plants mature, an undigestible material called lignin increases in plant cell walls

27. Energy producing nutrient Composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) – CH 2 O Includes sugars, glycogen, starch and cellulose Mainly in plants (~75% of solid plant material) Cell layer is cellulose; Starch is the energy source

28. Classified according to molecule size Type of CHO Example CH 2 O Monosaccharides (one molecule) Glucose, dextrose, fructose (CH 2 O) 2 Disaccharides (two molecules) Sucrose, Lactose (CH 2 O) 3 Polysaccharides (three or more molecules) Cellulose, Glycogen, Pectin

29. Monosaccharides CH 2 O GLUCOSE Glucose & fructose most common Glucose is immediate source of energy for cellular reactions i.e. tissue repair, muscle contractions, nerve transmissions Body continually supplies glucose to blood from stored compounds in liver (glycogen) Extremely Important

30. Disaccharides (CH 2 O) 2 Short chain of 2 CHO molecules Lactose (milk sugar); Sucrose (table sugar) Plants convert their stores of carbohydrates to sucrose for easy transport through the plant Proteins often have attached disaccharides

31. Polysaccharides (CH 2 O) 3 Includes starches , glycogen and cellulose The most abundant of all carbohydrates

32. Starches- from plants, broken down into glucose subunits Glycogen- storage form of glucose in animal cells, stored in liver and muscle, broken down to release glucose Cellulose- comprises majority of plant cell wall, insoluble, digested by bacteria in the herbivore digestive tract

33. Energy producing nutrient Found in highest concentration of any nutrient except water in all living organisms Composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N) (and sometimes sulfur (S) and phosphorus (P)

34. WHAT FUNCTIONS DO PROTEINS PERFORM IN THE BODY?

35. Functions Tissue Building Hormones Growth Enzymes Immune System Blood cells

36. Made up of amino acid (AA) sub-units Definition: Small organic compound that consists of an amino group (NH 2 ) on one end and a carboxyl group (COOH) on other plus a special group that defines the individual amino acid AA are linked together by peptide bonds 2 linked bonds = dipeptide 3+ linked bonds = polypeptide

37. Synthesized by plants, rumen microorganisms Non-herbivores get AA in diet Absorbed in the anterior small intestine Most protein in plants and animals composed of only 20 amino acids 10 Essential Amino Acids (11 for cats)

38. Essential Amino Acids Phenylalanine Histidine Valine Arginine Tryptophan Lysine Threonine Leucine Isoleucine Methionine Taurine* Cats only

39. Requirement for monogastric and avian species is for amino acids High needs for: young, rapidly growing gestating and lactating animals surgery or trauma certain pathologic conditions

40. Protein Deficiency Poor growth rate in young; weight loss in adults Excess shedding High neonate mortality; reduced egg production, infertility Causes of Protein Deficiency Inadequate food intake Poor quality protein Maldigestion or malabsorption Protein losing enteropathy, Nephropathy Common in catteries and kennels

41. Uncommon due to cost of feed Used for energy or stored as fat Chronic excess stresses kidneys Excretion of urea increases nitrogenous wastes that build up in bloodstream When urea or other non-protein sources are fed to ruminants, toxicity and death occur if diet has insufficient carbohydrates

42. Energy producing nutrient Insoluble in water Include fat, oils, complex sterols Comprised of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)

43. Fat is solid at room temperature Oil is liquid at room temperature

44. Functions Insulation Absorption of fat-soluble vitamins Hormone synthesis Structure to cell membrane Moisture to skin Palatability

45. Accounts for most of body’s stored energy “Fat reserves” Fat provides twice as much energy as CHO and protein Source of essential fatty acids Hydrophilic, absorbs water and takes up more space in the body

46. Definition: A chemical unit that occurs naturally, either singly or combined, and consists of strongly linked carbon and hydrogen atoms in a chain-like structure Important for lipid-protein structure of cell membrane Linoleic acid and Linolenic acid are essential for mammalian species. (Both are Omega 6 fatty acids) Arachadonic acid is required in cats

47. Important to brain development Iam’s - “How to Grow Smart Puppies” ™ Beneficial in inflammatory conditions Common sources found in feeds: Flaxseed, linseed, menhaden fish, animal fat, evening primrose oil, black currant oil

48. Signs of EFA Deficiency Signs of deficiency: scaly skin, necrosis of tail, reduced reproduction, edema, hemorrhaging, poor feathering in chickens Seen in pigs, chickens, calves, dogs, mice and guinea pigs Rare in ruminants, despite a fat-free diet, because the microbes produce adequate amounts of EFA

49. Neutral fats Phospholipids Sterols Carotenoids waxes

50. Most abundant fat in living things Includes saturated fats and unsaturated fats Saturated-have no shared carbon bonds Unsaturated- one shared bond between carbons Polyunsaturated-two or more shared bonds between carbons

51. Form cell membranes- one hydrophilic end and one hydrophobic end Fatty acid portion ( tail) is hydrophobic and not water soluble

52. Lipids that have no fatty acids Occur in cell membranes Include sex hormone ( estrogen, testosterone) Cholesterol, bile salts and sterols, ( biologically important) cholesterol- most common sterol in animal cell tissues Bile salts- role in fat digestion in small intestine

53. Red and yellow pigment cells of all plants Classified as lipids because of insolubility in water and oily consistency Vitamin A comes from splitting pigment

54. Long chain fatty acids tightly packed Firm consistency: repel water Help form the cuticle on plants and leaves Keeps feathers of water fowl clean and dry

55. Monogastrics Primary site is small intestine Bile and pancreatic lipase If large amount of fat is mobilized for energy, ketones form and excessive amounts are dumped into urine, milk and lungs Ruminants- microbes convert unsaturated fats to saturated fats

56. Small, organic compounds required by body for normal function Cofactors in ezymatic reactions Classified as fat soluble or water soluble - Absorbed through variety of ways Important in milk – especially colostrum

57. Different for each vitamin Vision Blood clotting factors Immune defense Epithelial tissue Bone mineralization and resorption Neural transmission

58. Vitamin A Vitamin C Potassium Zinc Vitamin E Iron Magnesium Calcium Vitamin K Selenium Vegetable Oil Tuna, red meat Citrus, green peppers Carrots, pumpkin Beef, Brazil nuts Sardines, milk Yogurt, lentils Soybeans Nuts, bananas Cauliflower, broccoli

59. Vitamins A, D, E, K Higher potential for toxicity than water soluble vitamins Require fat and bile salts to be absorbed Fat Soluble

60. Important part of visual proteins Key for epithelial tissues (skin, lining of body cavities) Beneficial to immune system Signs of deficiency : poor coat, retarded growth, anorexia Signs of toxicity : anorexia, “Cervical spondylosis” in cats Fat Soluble

61. Calcium/Phosphorus balance Key in bone resorption and mineralization Absorbed as ergosterol , converted to calciferol (D 2 ) in skin Kidneys convert D 2 to different compound used for calcium absorption Signs of deficiency : Rickets, posterior paralysis Signs of excess : anorexia, kidney stone, FORLs Fat Soluble

62. Antioxidant “Tocopherol” Alpha tocopherol: active in body Mixed tocopherol: active in food Protects cell membranes Signs of deficiency : sterility in males, steatitis in cats , immunodeficiency Signs of toxicity : Increased clotting time Fat Soluble

63. Vital to blood clotting proteins Synthesized by microbes in ruminant gut Deficiency is rare in all species except poultry Signs of deficiency : increased clotting time, hemorrhaging Sign of excess : minimally toxic Fat Soluble

64. B-Vitamins, Vitamin C Minimally toxic, due to excretion from the body in urine Key as cofactors in enzymatic reactions Water Soluble

65. Water Soluble Thiamin (B 1 ) Pyroxidine (B 6 ) Riboflavin (B 2 ) Biotin (B 7 ) Niacin (B 3 ) Folic Acid (B 9 ) Pantothenic acid (B 5 ) Cobalamin (B 12 )

66. Functions varied among forms of Vitamin B No single food source has enough vitamin B - must be gained from multiple sources Riboflavin deficiency is rare Niacin deficiency results in pellagra with dermatitis; dementia Water Soluble

67. Antioxidant Collagen synthesis Important in Carnitine synthesis Signs of deficiency : scurvy Signs of toxicity: rare Water Soluble

68. Natural component of animal cells Most carnitine (~98%) in body lives in skeletal and cardiac muscle Helps transport fatty acids into cells Helps build lean tissue

69. In nutrition, mineral means all inorganic elements in a food Major portion of body fluids (electrolytes) Important in enzymatic reactions “ Ash”

70. Macro Minerals Calcium Phosphorus Sodium Magnesium Potassium Chloride Sulfur Micro Minerals Chromium Cobalt Copper Fluorine Iron Iodine Manganese Molybdenum Nickel Selenium Silicon Zinc

71. Largest amounts found in skeletal system Provide structural rigidity Some functions: Iron is essential part of hemoglobin Iodine is component of thyroid hormone Sodium is key to body’s pH level Of total minerals in animal’s body… Ca = 46% and P = 29%

72. Absorbed from the GI tract Fat sometimes chelates certain minerals, thereby reducing their availability to animal Young are more efficient than old at absorbing minerals Requirements vary by species

73. Definition: “ an especially reactive atom or group of atoms that has one or more unpaired electrons; produced in the body by natural biological processes or introduced from an outside source (as tobacco smoke, toxins, or pollutants) and that can damage cells, proteins, and DNA by altering their chemical structure.” - Merriam-Webster Dictionary

74. DNA Mitochondria Attack cell membranes, DNA & Mitochondria mutations in DNA changes fluidity of cell membrane Cause oxidative stress in the body

75. Creates DNA damage Damage accumulates over course of animal’s life Injures cells Responsible for lots of chronic illnesses Cancer, Kidney disease, Cardiovascular disease, Cognitive Dysfunction Syndrome, etc

76. Pollution Radiation Metabolism Chemicals Food Additives

77. “ Powerhouse of the cell” By-product of energy production is free radicals Normally, body’s natural defenses quench free radicals Free radicals attack and damage mitochondria, which causes it to produce more free radicals Free radicals overwhelm body’s natural defenses, creating damage

78. Mitochondria “ Powerhouse of the Cell” Damaged Mitochondria Body’s Defenses Body’s Defenses Body’s Defenses Body’s Defenses X X X X

79. Definition: “ a substance that inhibits oxidation or reactions promoted by … free radicals” -Merriam-Webster Dictionary

80. Inactivate free radicals Improve cellular efficiency Work best in conjunction with other antioxidants (help to regenerate each other) Some are active in food; some are active in the body

81. Fights oxidation in the food Carotenoids & Flavonoids (from Vitamin A) Mixed Tocopherols (form of Vitamin E) Vitamin C Ethoxyquin Commonly marketed in dog and cat food

82. Fight oxidation in the animal’s cells Alpha tocopherols (form of Vitamin E) Ascorbic Acid Selenium Lipoic Acid Beta Carotene Carotenoids Flavanoids “ Cowboy”

83. SMALL ANIMAL NUTRITION: ENERGY CALCULATIONS & LIFE STAGE/LIFE STYLE NUTRITION