Basic civil engineering pdf

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Assala mu alykum My Name is saqib imran and I am the
student of b.tech (civil) in sarhad univeristy of
science and technology peshawer.
I have written this notes by different websites and
some by self and prepare it for the student and also
for engineer who work on field to get some knowledge
from it.
I hope you all students may like it.
Remember me in your pray, allah bless me and all of
you friends.
If u have any confusion in this notes contact me on my
gmail id: Saqibimran43@gmail.com
or text me on 0341-7549889.
Saqib imran.

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Basic Civil Engineering
RESPONSIBILITIES OF CIVIL ENGINEER
Working at Heights in Construction – Regulation and
Precautions
Working at heights in construction works is associated with hazards and accidents. Thus, safety
procedures are of utmost importance while working at heights.
At least 50-60 deaths are accounted per year in construction projects with number of injuries
around 4000 due to accidents associated with working at heights.
These risks are mostly subjected to the painters and the decorators who maintain the facade
beauty of the building structures. Some of the miscellaneous works that are done in large
heights are the window cleaning, maintenance work at height, changing of the street lamps,
tree surgery etc.
Regulations for Working at Heights were prepared which provides safety procedure to be
followed during such works. This not only include the construction work but also all works that
must be carried out at height.
A study conducted by the Health and Safety Engineer on past 5-year period record of
construction accidents conclude that a well-designed construction projects have lesser chance
to welcome hazards and accidents.
Sufficient dimensions for guard rails must be provided as per the building regulation of that
particular area / state for the construction of warehouses, factories, public buildings, retail
premises, offices etc.

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Hierarchy of Control as Per Work at Height Regulations
Certain hierarchy of measures were taken by the work at height regulations to save the workers
from accidents due to the working at heights. They are:
1. The requirement of working at height is avoided to the maximum
2. An existing safe place for work is employed
3. Provision of more equipment oriented works to avoid accidents
4. The chances of accidents due to heights and consequences of falls are mitigated
5. Proper Instruction, training to the workers and supervision must be controlled.
How to Work at Heights in a Construction Project?
working at height in a construction projects involves hazards and risks. Understanding the
safety risks associated with each type of construction work such as brick masonry, wall
plastering, painting etc. is required for safety and precautions.
Preparing a checklist for risk associated with each work and then following it on construction
site is essential first step towards working at height. Training of workmen for safety risks and
hazards is the next step. Regular supervision by a competent supervisor is necessary for
working at heights.
For details how to work at heights in construction projects, construction hazards and their
control is discussed below.
Construction Hazards due to Working at Heights and Their Control

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There are many chances of hazards that can be caused in a construction site due to the high
dynamic nature of the work. So, it is necessary to have a precaution while dealing with such
dangerous site than to have a reactive mind.
Some of the control measures and chances of hazards are mentioned below.
A Safe Working Place
During the progress of work at heights, it is very essential to have a safe and clear access and
egress from the workplace. The units that are used for the works like the working platforms,
the scaffolds, ladders, gangways, material hoists; all must be completely safe so that the worker
can trust it and do the work.
This check of working platforms must be done through regular inspection and maintenance if
needed. The working place must be kept clean and tidy as possible. Otherwise slipping and
tripping might be the cause of accidents.
Work Accidents and Protection of Injured
The working activities at heights can result in injuries sometimes to death. It is very essential to
bring special care to protect the workers while working at heights. No profit in project is
obtained without having any concern on the safety for the workers.
Safe systems of works are essential for the works like roofing, steel work, rendering, cladding,
erection, high pressure water, concrete repairs, painting, and demolition works if any. Other
hazardous problems due to electricity, vibrations, and noise can also affect the workers while
working at height.
Other main cause of accidents is the use of false work. The false work are temporary structures
that are used to support a non-supporting structure during its refurbishment or construction.
One such example is the use of wooden structure to have brick work. It is always recommended
that competent person must use false work by carrying out proper planning, erection, and
dismantling.
Large accidents due to the collapse of false work have been recorded. These accidents at large
heights make it more severe problem.
The cleaning of buildings involves grit-blasting and high-pressure water jets which are found to
be every dangerous activity. These are mostly carried out by standing over the scaffolding or
even ladders for high rise buildings, 30 to 35 stored ones or more.
It is very necessary to have protection of the workers, the occupants residing, the pass-by from
harmful effects of debris, dust, noise, flooding of the walkways and more importantly falling of
heavy debris and elements. The workers dealing with the same must carry essential goggles,
gloves, and ear defenders.
The equipment used must be properly cleaned and must undergo proper inspection by trained
specialists. All the above, proper supervision on whether the above-specified activities is
undergone or not is necessary.
Protection Against Falls

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The recommendations provided by the work at height regulations are mentioned to protect the
lives from falls:
1. If working at height is essential, proper planning and organizing is necessary before its
commencing.
2. The workers involved in working at heights must be competent.
3. The risk involved in working height must be analyzed and appropriate working
equipment must be provided accordingly.
4. Working near fragile surface if necessary must be properly planned and managed.
5. Properly inspected and maintained equipment must be used when working at heights.
Any undesirable behavior of equipment at the working time at height can cause serious
issues.
Fragile Roofs and Surfaces
Falling of workers from roofs made from fragile surfaces are recorded as a severe accident
cause every year. Roof works that are carried out in pitched types are dangerous and requires
risk management methods. This must be carried before the commencement of the work.
These fragile surfaces deteriorate with age due to the exposure to different climatic
temperatures which result in the loss of strength to act as a support for the workers to work.
Work must hence be started after looking to the condition of the roofs.
If that is the case, use of scaffolding, ladders and other support platforms becomes essential.
Warning signs at suitable locations, indications to show that the roof is fragile must be
provided.
If the roof is fragile, the following measures must be taken:
1. Carrying out the work underneath the roof must be done with the help of working
platform
2. If a working platform cannot be provided, a mobile elevating working platform will work
well. This helps the workers to stand on a bucket and carry out the work safely.
Situations where the access to the fragile roof is not possible, then it is necessary to provide
perimeter edge protection and staging. This help to spread the load.
Some of the fragility reasons seen for roofs are:
1. Deterioration of roofs with age
2. Corrosion of the roof cladding and fixing
3. Quality of the original materials are poor
4. The damage due to thermal and impact load
5. The supporting structure must be damaged
6. Damage due to extreme weather conditions
The roof materials considered to be fragile are:
1. Asbestos sheets
2. On built up sheeted roofs
3. Glass
4. Roof lights

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5. Fiber cement sheets
6. Metals sheets- corroded one
Points to Remember for Civil Site Engineer
Civil engineer does many activities at construction site and there are certain works which are
repetitive in nature. So, some points, tips and tricks which a civil engineer should remember for
faster calculations as well as quick solutions to construction site problems.
Points to Remember for Civil Site Engineer
Following are few general points to remember for civil site engineers to make the construction
work easier while maintaining quality of construction.
 Lapping is not allowed for the bars having diameters more than 36 mm.
 Chair spacing maximum spacing is 1.00 m (or) 1 No per 1m2.
 For dowels rod minimum of 12 mm diameter should be used.
 Chairs minimum of 12 mm diameter bars to be used.
 Longitudinal reinforcement not less than 0.8% and more than 6% of gross C/S.
 Minimum bars for square column is 4 No’s and 6 No’s for circular column.
 Main bars in the slabs shall not be less than 8 mm (HYSD) or 10 mm (Plain bars) and the
distributors not less than 8 mm and not more than 1/8 of slab thickness.
 Minimum thickness of slab is 125 mm.
 Dimension tolerance for cubes + 2 mm.
 Free fall of concrete is allowed maximum to 1.50m.
 Lap slices not be used for bar larger than 36 mm.
 Water absorption of bricks should not be more than 15 %.
 PH value of the water should not be less than 6.
 Compressive strength of Bricks is 3.5 N / mm2.
 In steel reinforcement binding wire required is 8 kg per MT.
 In soil filling as per IS code, 3 samples should be taken for core cutting test for every
100m2.

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Density of Materials
Material Density
Bricks 1600 – 1920 kg/m3
Concrete block 1920 kg/ m3
Reinforced concrete 2310 – 2700 kg/ m3
Curing time of RCC Members for different types of cement
Super Sulphate cement: 7 days
Ordinary Portland cement OPC: 10 days
Minerals & Admixture added cement: 14 days
De-Shuttering time of different RCC Members
RCC Member De-shuttering time
For columns, walls, vertical form works 16-24 hrs.
Soffit formwork to slabs 3 days (props to be refixed after
removal)
Soffit to beams props 7 days (props to refixed after removal)
Beams spanning upto 4.5m 7 days
Beams spanning over 4.5m 14 days
Arches spanning up to 6m 14 days
Arches spanning over 6m 21 days
Cube samples required for different quantity of concrete
Quantity of Concrete No. of cubes required
1 – 5 m3 1 No’s
6 0 15 m3 2 No’s
16 – 30 m3 3 No’s
31 – 50 m3 4 No’s
Above 50 m3 4 + 1 No’s of addition of each 50 m3
Roles and Responsibilities of a Civil Site Engineer
Roles and responsibilities of a civil site engineer depends on the nature of construction works in
a project and involves various activities such as quality control and reporting.
As the activities carried out in a construction industry is highly dynamic in nature, different
decisions and actions have to be carried out unexpectedly. These sudden actions are mostly
carried out by the site in charge or the civil site engineer at construction site.
This means the roles and responsibilities of a civil site engineer is not specific for every
construction site. These changes based on the activities and site conditions of the project. But
in brief, the site engineer must possess certain basic roles and responsibilities for the execution
and completion of the project.

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Role and Responsibilities of a Civil Site Engineer
The site engineer should possess basic knowledge about the practical construction procedures
in site, along with the details of how they are planned. This idea of planning and coordination
will help him to have proper execution of the activities in the site with desired performance.
A site engineer is very essential for a construction project. The responsibilities of a site engineer
are wide as he must provide sufficient advice and supervision when there are any technical
issues, or for proper management and for the preparation of day to day reports of the
construction works.
The responsibilities that is put on a site engineer in construction is mentioned briefly in below
section:
1. Construction Site Responsibilities
The site engineer is the person who spends most of his time at the construction site compared
with other managers or designers. Site engineers are updated daily about the coming day’s
design and activities based on which he implements them at site.
The top members of the construction organization get a clear picture about the daily activities
happening at the site through the site engineer.
2. Travelling
The site engineers are supposed to move from one site to another (based on the size of the
project or number of projects) for any special needs. He must also be required to reach with the
procurement of resources to get the materials as per the correct specifications if any
discrepancies happen.
This means every sector of activities say its design, materials or execution, the site engineer has
the role of advice.
3. Technical Activities

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Site activities like establishment of the level and the survey control, which is required for the
control of contracts must be performed by site engineer in required conditions. The works have
to be set out as per the contract drawings. This requires checks at regular basis on the
construction site.
The records maintained have to be accurate and they have to satisfy with the organizational
and the legal requirements.
The site engineer has to face any unexpected difficulties raised from the technical side at any
point of time. He must study the problem and resolve it in the most efficient manner as
possible.
4. Preparation of Reports and Schedules
The site engineer is the one who have to ensure that the site have adequate resources to
complete the tasks. This is conducted by having procurement schedules for the jobs carried out
and liaise with the procurement department regarding the same.
A report on the future works to be carried out at site are prepared and produced by site
engineers two weeks ahead. This is carried out in conjunction with the site agent.
The site engineer is responsible for keeping site diaries and the respective sheets for allocation.
5. Site Engineer for Health and Safety
For highly dangerous work site, the site engineer will take up the role of safety engineer. He has
to ensure that the work carried out by the workers and other related activities are as per the
safety regulation of the respective state or area.
Every construction organization must possess a safe working culture and practice. Its
implementation and practice of following is supervised by the site engineers. There may be
other safety, health officers for the organization, but ensuring safety is a common need.
Other responsibilities are to undergo construction activities that will promote the
environmental compliance. Each work has to be carried out safely within the deadline.
6. Quality Assurance by Site Engineer
As we know, quality is a parameter that have to be kept in practice from the initial stage of
planning to the end of the project. The major issues with design and documentation can be
corrected during the construction by the site engineer based on advice from the structural
engineers.
Any undesirable activities in construction brings high loss of quality and money. The site
engineer assures quality by the following means:
 Promoting the best construction practices
 Undergo activities and practices that comply with the procedures of the company and
the specification.
 Assures the work is completed and delivered without any defect and delay
 One must highlight value engineering opportunities
7. Communication and leadership duties
As the site engineer have to know the technical details from the above levels and make it in
practice in the site, he must be efficient enough to coordinate the information that is

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communicated. He must take up the detail from the higher levels accurately and pass them to
the below contractors, supervisors or labor workers. It not how efficiently you as a site engineer
understand the idea, but it’s on how you convey it to your sub-workers. This will reflect to have
the need for leadership quality to convey and make the workers do the work.
Roles and Responsibilities of Project Manager in
Construction
The roles and responsibility of project manager in construction is to make sure that the
customer is satisfied and the work scope, project is completed in a quality manner, using
budget and on time. The construction project manager has primary responsibility for providing
leadership in planning, organizing and controlling the work effort to accomplish the
construction project objectives.
In other words, the construction project manager provides the leadership to project team to
accomplish the construction project objective. The project manager coordinates the activities of
various team members to ensure that they perform the right tasks at the proper time, as a
cohesive group.
Roles of a Project Manager in Construction
The different roles of project manager are as follows:
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Controlling
4. Leading
5. Communicating
6. Cognitive functions
7. Self management functions
8. Motivational and personal development functions
9. Customer awareness functions
10. Organizational savvy functions

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1. Planning of Construction Project
First, the construction project manager clearly defines the project objectives and reaches
agreement with the customer on this objective. The manager then communicate this objective
to the project team in such a manner as to create a vision of what will constitute successful
accomplishment of the objective.
The construction project manager spearheads development of a plan to achieve the project
objectives. By involving the project team in developing this plan, the project manager ensures
more comprehensive plan than he or she could develop alone.
Furthermore, such participation gains the commitment of the team to achieve the plan. The
project manager reviews the plan with the customer to gain endorsement and then sets up the
project management information system-either manual or computerized-for comparing actual
progress to plan progress.
It’s important that this system be explained to the project team so that the team can use it
properly to manage the project.
2. Organizing the Construction Project
Organizing in construction projects involves securing the appropriate resources to perform the
work. First, the project must decide which tasks should be done in-house and which tasks
should be done by subcontractors or consultants.
For tasks that will be carried out in-house, the project manager gains a commitment from the
specific people who will work on the project. For tasks that will be performed by
subcontractors, the project manager clearly defines the work scope and deliverables and
negotiates a contract with each subcontractor.
The construction project manager also assigns responsibility and delegates’ authority to specific
individuals or subcontractors for the various tasks, with the understanding that they will be
accountable for the accomplishment of their tasks within the assigned budget and schedule.
For large construction projects involving many individuals, the project manager may designate
leaders for specific group of tasks. Finally, and most important, the task of organizing involves
creating an environment in which the individuals are highly motivated to work together as a
project team.
3. Controlling the Construction Project
To control the construction project, the project manager implements a management
information system designed to track actual progress and compare it with planned progress.
Such a system helps the manager distinguish between busy-ness and accomplishments.
Project team members monitor the progress of their assigned tasks and regularly provide data
on progress, schedule and cost. These data are supplemented by regular project review
meetings. If actual progress falls behind planned progress or unexpected events occur the
project manager takes immediate action. He or she obtains input and advice from team
members regarding appropriate corrective actions and how to replan those parts of the project.
It’s important that problems and even potential problems, be identified early and action taken.
The construction project manager cannot take a “let’s wait and see how things works out”

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approach- things never works out on their own. He or she must intervene and be proactive,
resolving problems before they become worse.
4. Leading the Construction Project
Project manager fosters development of a common mission and vision to the team members.
He should clearly define roles, responsibilities and performance expectations for all his team
members. He uses leadership style appropriately to situation or stage of team development.
He should be able to foster collaboration among team members. He should provide clear
direction and priorities to his team members. He should be efficient enough to remove
obstacles that hamper team progress, readiness or effectiveness.
The construction project manager should promote team participation in problem solving and
decision making as appropriate. He should pass credit on to team, and promotes their positive
visibility to upper management. He should appreciate, promote and leverage the diversity
within the team.
5. Communication by Project Manager
The Project Manager should be able to communicate effectively with all levels inside and
outside of the organizations. He should be able to negotiate fairly and effectively with the
customers/subcontractors. He should be able to bring conflicts into the open and manages it
collaboratively and productively with the help of other team members.
He should be able to able to influence without relying on coercive power or threats. He should
be able to convey ideas and information clearly and concisely, both in writing and orally to all
the team members.
6. Cognitive Functions of Construction Project Manager
The project manager should identify the problem and gathers information systematically and
seeks input from several sources.
He should then consider a broad range of issues or factors while solving these problems. For
this he collects the appropriate quantity of data for the situation and discusses it with all the
team members before making a decision. He then draws accurate conclusions from
quantitative data and makes decisions in an unbiased, objective manner using an appropriate
process. For this process of decision making he understands the concept of risk versus return
and makes decision accordingly.
7. Self Management Functions
The project manager should be able to maintain focus and control when faced with ambiguity
and uncertainty and should be able to show consistency among principles, values and behavior.
He should be resilient and tenacious in the face of pressure, opposition, constraints, or
adversity.
Being the head of the construction project he should manage implementations effectively and
should recognize as someone “who gets things done.” He should continuously seek feedbacks
from the team members and modify his behavior accordingly. He should take keen interest in
learning and self development opportunities.
8. Motivational and personal development functions

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Project manager should consider individual skills, values and interest of all his team members
when assigning or delegating tasks to them. He should allow team members an appropriate
amount of freedom to do the job. He should accurately assess individual strength and
development needs of his team members to complete the work effectively.
He should continuously offer opportunities for personal and professional growth to his team
members. He should arrange for training program and continuously seeks support to his team
member when needed. He should pass credit on to the individuals and promote their positive
visibility to upper management. He should give timely, specific and constructive feedback to all
his team members.
9. Customer Awareness Functions
Project manager should be able to anticipate customer’s needs effectively and proactively
strives to satisfy them. He should be able to accurately translate the customer’s verbalized
wants into what they actually needs. He should be able to understand customers and their
business and actively build and maintain strong customer relationships.
He should understand customer’s issues, concerns and queries and try to resolve them
effectively. He should actively strive to exceed customer expectations.
10.Organizational Savvy Functions of Project Manager
Project manager should involve the right people at the right time for a particular job.
Understands, accepts and properly uses power and influence in relationships. He should build
and leverage formal and informal networks to get things done.
He should know the mission, structure and functions of the organizations and others. He should
understand profitability and general management philosophy. He balances interests and needs
of team/project with those of the broader organization.
Role of Construction Professionals in Monitoring a
Construction Project
Role of construction professionals such as architects, engineering consultants, builders,
quantity surveyors in monitoring a construction project is discussed.
A construction project is a product of different information and designs from different
professionals. If these information and designs are to be adhered to, the presence of their
producers and designers are required.
Role of Architect
According to Bamisile (2004), the architect should be visiting site periodically for inspections to
ensure that in general, the work being carried out on site is in compliance with architectural
designs and specifications.
Role of Engineering Consultants
Bamisile (2004) noted that during the construction phase, engineers (geotechnical, structural,
electrical and mechanical) should visit the site regularly for inspections to ensure that in
general, is in compliance with their engineering drawings, schedules and specification.

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A Structural Engineer should be concerned with the monitoring and ensuring that the design
(structural) performance criteria are met in the construction methods and materials. Similarly,
the mechanical and electrical engineer should monitor the type and ways of installing
mechanical and electrical installations so as to ensure that it complies with their designs and
specifications.
Role of the Builder
The core function of a builder in any construction project is Building Production Management.
An integral part of management is monitoring. A builder should be concerned with monitoring
and evaluating the construction project. He should be able to apply the different monitoring
techniques to achieve the objectives. A builder needs to be fully aware and conversant with the
different construction professionals and their corresponding contract documents so that their
implementation can be properly monitored.
Role of the Quantity Surveyor
A Quantity Surveyor is concerned with the quantities and cost associated in a construction
project. As a cost expert, the Quantity Surveyor monitors the cost of every aspects of a
construction project. He does this so that the total cost of production does not exceed the
estimated cost.
Areas of Monitoring of the Construction Project
A construction project is considered successful if it meets defined needs to the required
standard (quality) within the time and cost budget. These parameters – quality, cost and time
are critical and should therefore be monitored as they define the success level of any
construction project.
1. Construction Quality
For monitoring of quality to be effective, it must be measured against a standard. The Project
Quality Management Plan serves as a standard against which the quality of a construction
project can be measured.
Quality in a construction project depends on a range of variables and involves much more than
the simple parameters such as the visible standard of finishes, structural soundness, or making
of components fit within close tolerances.
The monitoring of quality should embrace all the aspects by which a construction project is
judged including spatial arrangement, circulation, efficiency, aesthetics, flexibility as well as its
functional ability as a climate modifier and as a suitable structure.
Besides the Project Quality Management Plan, contract and job specifications also provide a
criterion by which to assess and assure the quality of a construction project.
2. Construction Cost
For control and monitoring purposes, the detailed cost estimate should be converted to a
project budget, and the project budget is used subsequently as a guide for management. The
detailed cost estimate should provide a baseline for the assessment of financial performance
during a construction project.

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Expenses during the course of the project should be recorded in specific job cost accounts and
this should be compared with the original detailed cost estimates. When the cost are within the
detailed cost estimate, the cost and finance of a construction project is thought to be
monitored and under control.
3. Construction Time
Construction typically involves a deadline for work completion, so construction managers must
force attention to time. More generally, a delay in construction represents additional costs due
to late facility occupancy and other factors. The duration of activities must therefore be
monitored and compared to expected durations so that the project is completed within the
time required.
Monitoring Techniques in Construction Projects
The method of ensuring that an accurate check is kept upon progress in a construction project
is very important, depending as it does upon frequent comparisons between work done and
programme. Such comparisons can be made in a simple visual manner, so as to throw into
prominence any divergence between the two by plotting the progress on the construction
programme (Bamisile, 2004).
According to Olorunoje et al (2004), monitoring tools will involve recording techniques such as
the use of network diagrams like:
1. Gantt chart
2. Arrow diagram or critical path analysis
3. Progress curves
Before any of the above monitoring techniques can be implemented to monitor a project
effectively, a thorough knowledge of the entire work associated with the construction project
must be known. This leads us to the concept of Work Breakdown Structure.
1. Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
According to Payne et al (1996), a Work Breakdown Structure provides a rational subdivision of
the work in hierarchical form down to the lowest level of discrete work packages from which
estimates of resources requirements, duration, linkages and costs can be determined.
From the Work Breakdown Structure, a list of activities and precursor activities can be
produced for the purposes of network analysis, from which programmes and chart flow.
2. The Gantt Chart
This is a simple and effective way of illustrating progress or status of an entire project or its
individual status. A Gantt chart, also known as a bar chart, graphically describes a project
consisting of a well defined collection of tasks or activities, the completion of which marks its
end. An activity is a task or closely related group of tasks whose performance contributes to
completion of the overall project.
The Gantt chart is generally organized so that all activities are listed in a column at the left side
of the diagram. A horizontal time scale extends to the right of the list, with a line corresponding
to each activity on the list. A bar representing the duration of each activity is drawn between its
corresponding scheduled start and finish times along its horizontal line (Barrie et al, 2006).

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Gantt charts can be modified in order to show planned progress as well as to report progress.
According to Barrie et al (2006), in order to report progress, a parallel bar is sometimes placed
below the plan bar, and it is initially left open. Then, as the job progresses, it is shaded in direct
proportion to the physical work completed on the activity.
The Gantt chart is an effective way to monitor the duration and cost associated with a
construction project. A sample of the Gantt chart is contained in the appendix.
3. The Critical Path Method (CPM)
The Critical Path Method is the systematic representation of a project by means of a diagram
called network depicting the sequence and interplay of various components/units that go to
form the project.
According to Arora et al (2005), the Critical Path Method is activity based. This does not take
into account of the uncertainties involved in the estimation of time for the execution of an
activity. The times are related to costs.
The activities are represented by arrows. These arrows are connected in order of sequence of
operations. The nodes which represent events are attached to the beginning and end of each
arrow.
The Critical Path Method provides a powerful means of documenting and communicating
project plans, schedules and performance to managers. It also identifies the most critical
elements in the project schedule and thus, allows management to set priorities and focus
attention on them (Barrie et al, 2006).
4. Progress Curves
Progress curves, also called S curves, graphically plot some measure of cumulative progress on
the vertical axis against time on the horizontal axis. Progress can be measured in terms of
money expended, quantity surveys of work in place, man-hours expended, or any other
measure which makes sense (Barrie et al, 2006); and this can be expressed either in terms of
actual units (naira, cubic meters, etc) or as a percentage of the estimated total quantity to be
measured.
Progress curves can express some aspects of project plans. Once the project is underway, actual
progress can be plotted and compared with that which was plotted. It is then possible to make
projections based on the slope of the actual progress curve, (Barrie et al, 2006).
Roles and Responsibilities of Structural Design Engineers
in Construction
Structural design engineer performs various roles and responsibilities in a construction project
providing technical details for the activities to be performed at construction site.
Structural engineering is a wider discipline under the field of civil engineering. It is a vast topic
with unlimited theories and practices. It’s a field that is still developing with huge innovations
and ideas.
So being a structural engineer, the roles and responsibilities that have to be received is of
greater importance.

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The structural engineering is more concerned with the design and the physical integrity of the
structures. These structures can be buildings, dams, tunnels, bridges etc.
The main focused responsibility of a structural engineer is to bring a structure that will ensure
safety and durability till the service period.
The architects develop building only based on the size, shape and use of the building. But these
have certain hidden technical issues during construction and after, that can be found and
resolved only by the structural engineers. The structural engineers help the architects to
achieve his or her vision of the project planned.
Working Times and Location of a Structural Engineer
When looking into the working time and the place spent by the structural engineers, most of
the highly involved structural engineers will be working in office as well as on the construction
sites.
They can work by splitting the time between both the contexts. The locations of work vary
based on the working environments. Rural or metropolitan areas have different working
schedules and environment.
The structural engineers may have to work for long hours sometimes similar to site engineers,
which mainly depend on the size of the project and the size of the organization.
If the structure of the organization is well defined and large, it will have sufficient members for
the design team, planning team, execution team with a group of professionals, skilled as well as
semi-skilled employees and workers. This will reduce some burden on the structural engineer.
An organization with a single experienced structural engineer will have to assist the work
throughout the course of the project.

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Roles and Responsibilities of Structural Design Engineers in
Construction
A strong knowledge of physics, creative problem solving and three-dimensional conceptual skill
must be gained by a structural engineer. Other than these, the roles and the responsibilities of
the structural engineer includes:
1. Structural Designing
2. Site and Work Investigations
3. Communication
4. Construction Management
5. Adequate Training
1. Structural Designing
Structural engineers are more graduated for structural detailing and their analysis. So, they are
more in to design of structures. The structural designing procedures carried out by the
structural engineers include calculating the loads and the stresses acting on the building,
analysis for the loads, design of sections of structures to sustain the loads; so that the structure
designed will withstand the loads predicted safely.
The structural engineers are also involved in the selection of materials best suited for the
structure. This will hence ask for good knowledge about the different materials that are used in
the construction at the current condition like their economic factors, strength factors and
durability factors.
The quality factors of different building materials can be analyzed by a structural engineer to
finalize their suitability in the design of the beams, columns or the foundations.
Another skill of a structural designer is the analysis of structures. This is presently carried out by
the software like ETABS, STAAD, SAP etc. As years pass new software are being developed for
the analysis of structures at different conditions of loads like wind, earthquake etc.
Most of the structural engineers have to study and work with these software with a knowledge
of both the technical details and the programming details. In some organizations, the analysis is
carried out by a programmer who may not have the civil engineering graduation but is assisted
by a structural engineer.
Whatever be the mode of analysis done, the structural engineer must have the ability to
understand and interpret the results from the software to know the validity of the values
provided as output. Some organization won’t completely rely on the computer results, they
conduct a separate man-made calculation for assurance.
2. Site Investigations
When dealing with the site investigation, the structural engineers are involved in checking the
condition of the soil for the construction of the project. Based on the loads calculated by the
designer, it must be checked whether the soil is suitable to bear the calculated loads.

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This investigation will also decide the foundation systems that must be used for the structure.
Any kind of treatment required for the soil too is decided based on the investigation. This
investigation is carried out by testing the soil which is the part of geotechnical engineer.
3. Communication
Even though structural engineers are the ones that bring and develop the design ideas and
detail, he can only see it happen on the site only if the structure is constructed as desired. For
this, his interpretation and ideas have to conveyed with the other members of the projects.
The structural engineer has to coordinate and consult other members like the site engineers,
other design engineers, geotechnical engineers, landscape architects, architects, project
managers etc. Proper knowledge helps in spreading correct information among the group
avoiding confusion and errors.
4. Construction Management
The management responsibility of a structural engineer starts from the collection of sufficient
information for the project to the execution of different activities on the construction site. In
certain critical situations, they are responsible for material and equipment delivery for
undergoing a special task of the construction project. They conduct frequent checks of the on-
site labor works and the activities.
5. Training Works
Not all structural engineers are trained for the complete responsibilities. Some are gained
through years of experience and some standard skills through different training activities. As
construction is an industry prone to more of safety issues, structural engineers are to be trained
for strict standards of working.
Organization authorities can train the structural engineers for special quality certifications or
for special analysis or design software. Proper knowledge of the National codes of the area is an
important technical knowledge for any structural engineer.
Roles and Responsibilities of a Consulting Civil Engineer
A consulting civil engineer is an independent, professional engineer who performs well-detailed
engineering services for clients on agreed sum of money.
It is quite unfortunate that the services and responsibilities that a consulting civil engineer
renders are poorly understood while those who seek to engage him have only a vague idea of
his functions. Most graduates of engineering background also have a meager understanding of
the role he plays. Even some consulting civil engineers lack adequate comprehension of their
responsibilities and obligations.
This article is presented to address all of the above shortcomings and to make the public at
large appreciate the works of a consulting civil engineer. I have drawn mostly on my
experiences as a professional engineer who has worked with both governmental and corporate
organizations on various landmark projects.

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Consulting is not a field for a person who hesitates to face new challenges. The competent
engineer who likes variety and enjoys the challenge of ever-changing problems can find a
fascinating and rewarding career in a consulting firm.
The profession demands business and management skills in addition to engineering and
professional trainings. It offers a unique opportunity for self-employment and it is perhaps the
only path open to an engineer with the spirit of an entrepreneur who wishes to become his
own boss in full-time engineering practice.
In spite of its importance, challenge and fascination, the profession of consulting engineering is
little recognized and poorly appreciated by members of the public largely due to the fact that
his services are seldom performed for individuals as in the case of other professions like
medicine and law.
What is a Consulting Civil Engineer?
A consulting civil engineer is simply an independent, professional engineer who performs well-
detailed engineering services for a client based on an agreed sum of money. He must be
registered to practice as a professional engineer in the state or country where he resides and it
is illegitimate for him to have commercial affiliations with manufacturers, material suppliers
and contractors.
Services rendered by a given consulting civil engineer depend not only on his field of
engineering but also on his choice between special and general practice.
Some consultants confine their activities to a limited field in which they function as specialists
and thereby becoming consultants to other engineers or clients having need of highly
specialized advice and guiding information. Others may prefer to specialize in services to a
certain type of client rather than perform in a broader range.
Most consultants, however, offer broader services or general practice although their activities
may be confined to one or more fields of engineering, or several types of projects. Such general
practitioners are more likely to have several kinds of clients and therefore perform more varied
services as they can handle all aspects of engineering projects.

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Roles and Responsibilities of a Consulting Civil Engineer
The types of services performed by consulting civil engineers are outlined and discussed below.
Consultation
Consultation occurs when a client, who needs an opinion on some engineering problems, avails
himself of the expert knowledge and the experience of a consulting civil engineer.
Consultations may be brief or extended and may sometimes require considerable travel and a
substantial portion of the consultant’s time.
Investigation
Most consultations usually require some study and investigation which involve analysis and
simple computations while others may require field trips to observe and inspect equipment or
structures. Still again, they may involve a review of studies, reports, investigations or
communications prepared by other engineers or by the client’s management.
Feasibility Reports
These reports are concerned with determining the feasibility of some projects while presenting
the results of surveys, studies and investigation carried out to confirm the engineering solution
to be adopted in line with the financial cost. A feasibility study will usually include such items as
purpose of study, requirements and needs of project, alternate solutions, estimated
construction cost, recommendations and conclusion.
Engineering Design
Engineering design is the process of determining the physical characteristics and dimensions of
a structure or project to be constructed or manufactured. These characteristics and dimensions
are presented graphically on drawings, commonly referred to as blueprints by the layman. Such
drawings, or plans, are supplemented by written documents called specifications.

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Plans and Specifications are used to direct the contractor or the manufacturer on the details of
work expected from him. Frequently, the design process includes the preparation of detailed
lists of materials called bill of quantities which is used to procure all the materials needed for
the construction or manufacturing work.
Procurement
The consulting civil engineer often assists the client in the selection of contractors or in the
purchase of materials for the award of contracts. Procurement usually involves the receipt of a
proposal from one or more material suppliers and selection is made on a competitive or a
negotiated basis.
On construction projects, particularly for government organizations, contracts are usually
awarded on the basis of competitive bidding while the engineer will normally prepare the
contract documents in addition to drawings and specifications in conjunction with the client’s
legal officer.
With the plans, specifications and contract documents, bids are solicited from contractors or
manufacturers through public notices issued in accordance with legal requirements. After the
receipt of all interested tenders, bids are opened publicly, as a rule, read and tabulated by the
consulting civil engineer who will then makes his recommendations to the client.
Construction Supervision
This activity consists of two parts – general supervision and resident supervision. General
supervision involves the following:
a) Periodic visits to site
b) Consultation with the Owner/Client
c) Interpretation of plans and specifications
d) Checking working drawings and data
e) Processing & certification of contractor’s payment estimates
f) Preparation of amendments to contractor’s contract
g) Final inspection of project
h) Preparation of “as-built” drawings
Resident supervision however requires the consulting engineer to send a representative or a
resident engineer to the site of the project. The resident engineer is responsible for detailed
supervision and inspection to ensure that the project is constructed according to the plans and
specifications. In addition, he also coordinates and expedites the activities of the contractors.
Legal Services
Often consulting civil engineers are requested to function as expert witnesses in the court
proceedings and to advise clients and lawyers on engineering matters involved in legal
procedures.
Other Services
The list of services outlined above is by no means complete and a compilation of a complete list
of services would be a formidable task and would serve no useful purpose. However, the

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listings given here adequately cover the range of services performed by a consulting civil
engineer.
How to be Successful in your Civil Engineering Career?
Achieving Effectiveness as a Young Civil Engineer
Civil engineers spend four or more years in the institution being persuaded that if they solve
the technical problems properly they will be rewarded with high grades.
Not surprisingly, when they get to work, many civil engineers still expect that all they have to
do to succeed is to apply effectively the technical and analytical skills they have been taught to
the engineering assignments given to them. This is necessary, but not sufficient.
Successful Civil Engineers learn to manage their careers with the same skill and care they apply
to their technical assignments, and with a sufficient priority.
Get Off to A Right Start
In Civil Engineering education, you have to work hard to survive a demanding curriculum and to
build an academic record you can be proud of. The chances are that you landed your first job
because the employer came looking for you.
Although, more or less than 10% of university graduates are engineers, they receive about half
of all on-campus job offers. Civil Engineering employment has traditionally been reasonably
secure, and most industries were less likely to lay off engineers than other workers.
However, nowadays, jobs held by civil engineers are growing increasingly vulnerable due to
structural changes in economic situation which affect the work environment that confront
engineers resulting in corporate downsizing, reduced long-term research expenditures,
automation and globalization.

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A perverse consequence of the increase in productivity of individual civil engineers using
computer-aided design (CAD) is the elimination of the jobs of other civil engineers!
Regard Your Work
Since having a secure job is not satisfying for most professional civil engineers, you must begin
to build for yourself a personal reputation on which your future career success will depend.
Several decades later, you may come to reflect on the actions and decisions in your early career
that made you successful, or that might have made you more successful: perhaps then you will
be willing to share your hard-earned wisdom with young civil engineers who are following in
your footsteps.
The new graduate usually makes his or her mark within the first few years in the organization
depending on his or her technical ability which is complemented by his managerial ability to
command, plan, organize and control people.
You will be judged not on what you know but on what you do and the engineer accomplishes
but little without other people’s assistance. This makes it essential to give your best efforts to
your early assignments, regardless of how trivial they may appear.
Doing an exceptional job on a minor assignment is the best way to be recognized and assigned
more important, more challenging, more satisfying work since executives are continually
searching for competent people to move up into more responsible positions.
Don’t wait for others – Get Things Done
Just because you have asked a foreman, a vendor, or a colleague to provide something you
need does not mean that it’s going to happen in a timely fashion. Keep a tickler file and call
(and call again if need be) to check on progress. Find another way to get it done or work two
techniques in parallel if necessary.
Go the Extra Miles – and Hours
Reputations are not made on a 40-hour week, and to be an effective professional you will at
least have to do your professional studies largely on your own time; as you increase in
responsibility you will also find that you need uninterrupted blocks of time that never seem to
be available during the day for planning and thinking problems through.
The fastest promotions generally go to those who put forth the extra effort and meet
deadlines. This must be balanced against other values – time spent raising our families,
recreation time to keep us whole and renewed, service to our community and other time
invested on things that are important to us.
These balances can be particularly difficult for married female professionals, unless they are
fortunate enough to marry someone who truly does his share in home and family choices.
Look for Visibility
You can do a good job every day, but you need to be seen to be recognized as a “rising star”.
Look for opportunities to make a presentation, to take leadership role in a professional society
chapter, to give a talk in a symposium or to organize a seminar for skill empowerment.
Learning the dividing line between making your capabilities visible and “brown nosing” takes
maturity, but it is maturity that leads to greater responsibility.

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Learn the Corporate Culture
Keep your eyes and ears open. Notice how successful civil engineers dress, and do likewise (but
perhaps with a touch of style); save your expressions of independence for more important
things. Notice how your colleagues interact and how they get things accomplished. If you
cannot be comfortable and effective in your company’s culture, perhaps you’d better go
somewhere else!
Regard Your Boss
Long before the days of universities and textbooks, craftsmen in all the arts absorbed their skills
by apprenticeship to master craftsmen. By observing the master engineer, you can learn much
more quickly the art of being an effective civil engineering professional.
Understand the boss to the point that the decisions you make are the same ones he or she
would make. Strive to become his or her alter ego because not only will you learn the art, but
you will become so trusted and valuable that when this paragon is promoted, he or she will not
want to tackle a bigger job without taking you along to help. If, on the other hand, your boss is
not of this caliber, you still owe him or her your best while you are looking for a transfer.
Keep up the “Old School” ties
Always stay in touch with your past school friends, professors, old colleagues and bosses.
Someday, you may need help in finding a new job, getting a recommendation or some other
venture. Also, you may need outside sources of information on people and business or some
other vital resources needed to solve a problem.
You will be measured not just by what you know but by what you can find out when needed.
Networking is the modern term for such a web of mutually supportive relationships.
Safety Procedures at Construction Site – Safety
Precautions and PPEs
Any construction site is a dangerous occupation for all personnel, especially for labors working
on site and so one must be prepared every day for safety. For this purpose, various safety
measures have to be taken.
Safety Procedures at Construction Site
Personal protective equipment (PPE) are supplied to all the personnel’s working on site and
even for the personal who are temporary visiting to the site
Personal protective equipment (PPE) can be classified as:
 Minimum Personal protective equipment (PPE)
 Additional Personal protective equipment (PPE)

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Minimum PPE Requirements for Safety at Construction Site
Hard Hat or Helmet
Hard hat or helmet is issued to each and every personnel working on site. It has to be worn all
times at job site.
Safety Glasses
Safety glasses are required at construction site every time debris is filled in air due to activities
on site.
Hand Protection Gloves
Hand gloves are supplied to all personals to protect against cuts when handling material or
equipment’s, during cleaning operations, cutting metal studs or similar works.
Safety Vests
Safety vests also called as high visibility shirts. Purpose of safety vest is to keep the person
always clear in view, even in the dark and he should be visible to everyone.
Safety vests are of different bright colors like red, green, yellow so it’s easy for workers to see
and locate each other
Proper Clothing
Shirts, long pants and hard soul shoes, a 6-inch-high boot is recommended.

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Additional PPE Equipments for Safety at Construction Site
Hearing Protection
It is compulsory to wear hearing protection equipment near any equipment, tool or machinery
which makes loud noises. As per standard practice if you are 2 foot away from somebody and
you need to shout to talk, putting hearing protection is necessary.
Respiratory Protection
Sometimes as voluntary respiration policy dust mask is supplied, any employee looking for
additional comfort or safety while working with fiber glass, fire proofing, cleaning the floors or
handling debris.

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Face shields
A full face shield should be worn along with safety glasses when working in a high debris,
operating grinder or any spark producing activity or similar activities or when done on site. An
approved welding shield is compulsory to wear during all welding operations.
Safety Harness
The safety harness is an attachment between a fixed and mobile object and is usually fabricated
from rope, cable and locking hardware.
Full body safety harness to be used as a procedure for fall protecting system, ignorance can
result in severe physical harm. Safety harnesses keep workers safe and are helpful in freeing
their hands for work even while hanging on the side of a building.
Material Storage
Material on the job site should be stored properly when not in use to prevent injury and
wastage of materials. Ensure proper storage and good housekeeping.
Proper storage can prevent the falls of the materials leading to material damage and accidents.
Weight of the material stored should be within safe loading limits of the building floor.
Keep the passageway always clear for walking of personal and prevent injuries. Always store
the material away from traffic.
Store material at least 6 feet away from the openings in the floor and 10 feet from the edge of
the floor if the wall is not built on edge of floor.

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Manual Material Handling
The personnel should be aware of his weight lifting capacity and if required take the help of
another person if required instead of taking all load himself and use proper lifting techniques.
Always need to wear the safety equipment’s while working on construction site.
Mechanical Material Handling
Mechanical material handling also requires same amount of safety as in case of manual
material handling. Equipment Operator needs to take care of the weight lifting capacity of the
equipment like forklifts, cranes and other similar to avoid accidents.
Ground personnel should be in machine operator’s vision always and should be aware of the
safety procedures while working around the heavy mechanical equipments.
Basic Safety Precautions at Construction Site
In any construction project for basic safety precautions to be implemented are:
 Guard rails to be installed at open scaffold areas, all openings in the building floor, in the
excavated areas, at mobile elevated platforms.
 Yellow stickers with safety notes to be pasted where necessary
 All the working platforms should be stable, properly braced, should not be overloaded
and safe for the working personnel

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 All the working areas and passageways should be free from waste or debris or any of
obstruction like stored material
 The site should be clean all the times and the material should be stored safely
 There should be proper arrangement of collection and disposal of waste materials
 First aid should be available at all times on site for cuts burns or any mishaps
 Fire extinguishers to be placed on site on proper locations in case of any fire
 That should be proper lighting arrangements on the site especially when the work is
carried out during the night stand
To summarize, world class construction project execution is impossible without proper health
and safety management
USEFUL INFORMATION FOR CIVIL SITE
ENGINEERS
Following are the basic civil engineering tips you should be remembered while working on a
construction site.
1. GRADE OF CONCRETE:
M5 – 1 : 4 : 8
M10 – 1 : 3 : 6
M15 – 1 : 2 : 4
M20 – 1 : 1.5 : 3
M25 – 1 : 1 : 2
2. CLEAR COVER TO MAIN REINFORCEMENT:
Footings: 50 mm
Raft Foundation (Top) : 50 mm
Raft Foundation (Bottom): 75 mm
Raft Foundation (Side) : 75 mm
Beam: 25 mm
Strap Beam: 50 mm
Column :40 mm
Slab: 15 mm
flat Slab: 20 mm
Staircase: 15 mm
Retaining Wall: 20 – 25 mm
Water Retaining Structures: 2 0- 30 mm.
Maximum water absorption by bricks – 15%
Compressive strength of bricks – 3.5 N/mm2

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Density Of Bricks- 1600-1920 Kg/m3
Minimum thickness of slab – 125 mm
Dimension tolerance for cubes – +2
Maximum free fall of concrete – 1.50 m
Lapping should not be used for the bars having larger dia than 36 mm.
Binding wire required for steel reinforcement – 8 kg per MT
3 samples should be taken for every 100 m2 in core cutting test.
Maximum chair spacing – 1 m.
Minimum dia should be used in dowels rod – 12 mm.
Hook for strriups (one side) – 9D
No. of strriups = (clear span/spanning) + 1
Length of main steel in cantilever anchorage – 69D.
Minimum no. of bars in square column – 4
Minimum no. of bars in circular column – 6
Minimum dia of main bars and distributors in the slab – 8 mm.
Maximum dia of main bars and distributors in the slab – 1/8 of slab thickness.
All reinforcement should be free from mill scales, loose rust, and coats of paints, oil or any
other substances.
3. SETTING TIME:
Initial setting time should not be less than 30 minutes.
Final setting time should not be greater than 10 hours.
4. REQUIRED CURING DAYS:
Super sulfate cement – 7 days
Ordinary portland cement – 10 days
Cement with minerals and admixtures – 14 days.
5. SLUMP VALUE (IS-456):
Lightly reinforced concrete: 25 – 75 mm.
Heavily reinforced concrete: 75 – 100 mm.
Trench fill : 100 – 150 mm ( for in-situ & tremie).
6. CUBE SAMPLES:
1 – 5 m3 : 1 No.
6 – 15 m3 : 2 No..
16 – 30 m3 :3 No.
31 -50 m3 : 4 No.
Above 50 m3 : 4 + 1 no. of addition for each 50 m3.

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FORMWORK FOR BEAMS AND SLABS
FORMWORK FOR BEAMS AND FLOORS:
Formwork for interior and end beam and floors are shown in Fig. Various parts of the formwork
are shown in the same fig. Sizes of various elements and their functions are given in brief.
1. Cleats:
Cleats are fixed to the sides of the beams. The size of the cleat is 100 mm x 20 mm or 100 mm x
30 mm.
2. Side forms of the sheathing of the beams are generally 30 mm thick.
3. Joists Or Battens:
Joists support the decking. The size of the joists depends upon the c/c spacing of the joists and
span of the joists. Joists are also known as battens.
4. Ledgers:
Ledgers are horizontal wooden pieces nailed to the cleats. They form the bearing for joists.
5. Bottom Sheathing:
It should be made 50 mm to 70 mm thick as load is quite heavy over it.
6. Head Tree:
The whole of the beam is supported on a head tree. It is a horizontal beam connected at top of
the vertical post or shore, through inclined cleats or beams.
At the bottom of the vertical posts or shores, a pair or wedges are fixed over sole pieces.
Wedges help in tightening or slightly raising the formwork to develop initial camber in the
formwork. Wedges are withdrawn while stripping the formwork. Formwork should not be
stripped at once, but should be loosened slowly by withdrawing the wedges slightly in stages.

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All the construction joints in beams and floors should be made in the middle third of the beam.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY,
SECONDARY AND TIE BEAM
Beam is one of the most important structural parts of a building. In our previous article, we
have already discussed different types of beams used in construction. In this article, we will
discuss the differences between primary, secondary and tie beam.
PRIMARY BEAM:
The beams that are connecting columns for transferring loads of a structure directly to the
columns are known as primary beams. Usually, primary beams are shear connected or simply
supported and they are provided in a regular building structure. The depth of the primary
beams is always greater than secondary beams. Primary beam act as a medium between
columns and secondary beams.
SECONDARY BEAM:
The beams that are connecting primary beams for transferring loads of a structure to the
primary beams are known as primary beams. These beams are provided for supporting and
reducing the deflection of beams and slabs.
TIE BEAM:
The beams that are connected by two or more rafters in the roof or roof truss for stiffening the
whole building structure, known as tie beams.

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These beams do not carry the vertical load of slab or walls instead carry the axial compression.
Generally, tie beams are used in roof truss or in damp proof course at the plinth level.
DIFFERENCE AMONG SCAFFOLDING,
SHUTTERING, CENTERING, STAGGING
SCAFFOLDING:
Scaffolding is a temporary framework having platforms at different level of a structure which
enables the masons/labor for working at the height. They are usually used for activities such as
plastering, painting, brickwork at heights etc. There are various types of scaffolding:
1. Brick Layer / Single Scaffolding.
2. Mason’s Or Double Scaffolding.
3. Steel Scaffolding.
4. Needle Or Cantilever Scaffolding.
5. Gantries.
6. Bamboo/Wooden Scaffold
3. Suspended Scaffolding.
SHUTTERING/FORMWORK:
Formwork is a temporary structure used as a mold in which fresh concrete are poured to cast
the members of the structure at the site. It is also known as falsework or shuttering. In the

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context of concrete construction, the falsework supports the shuttering molds for example
column sides, beam sides, slab side, wall side etc.
So, By their definitions, scaffolds are for supporting labor and materials and act as working
platforms. Formwork (Shuttering) acts as molds for pouring concrete.
CENTERING:
Part of the formwork which supports the horizontal surface is called centering for example slab
bottom, beam bottom etc.
STAGING:
That portion which supports centering & shuttering is called Staging. This can be:
1. Wooden Ballies
2. Pipes/Props/Jacks
3. H frames
4. Space frames using Coupler / Cup-Lock system

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REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FORMWORK
Formwork is a temporary but rigid structure in which the cast in situ concrete is laid for casting
the members to required shape. It is also known as centering or shuttering.
Formwork is placed at its right position before pouring the fresh concrete in it. Poured concrete
is then compacted and permitted to solidify to gain strength. The formwork is permitted to stay
in position till the concrete achieve enough strength to resist the stresses coming on it without
the assistance of the formwork. After this, the formwork is removed.
The formwork is permitted to stay in position till the concrete achieve enough strength to resist
the stresses coming on it without the assistance of the formwork. After this, the formwork is
removed.
A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:
1. It should be adequately strong to withstand an extensive variety of dead and live loads. For
instance, self-weight, weight of reinforcement, weight of wet concrete, loads of workers, and
any other loads during and after casting of concrete.

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2. It should be inflexibly built and efficiently propped and supported to hold its shape without
undue deflection.
3. The joints in the formwork should be tight enough to prevent leakage of cement grout.
4. The formwork should be created in such a way that it may allow the evacuation of different
parts in the desired sequence without shaking or damaging the concrete.
5. The material of the formwork should be inexpensive, easily accessible and can be reused for
several times.
6. The surface of the formwork should be plain and smooth, and set properly to the desired line
and level.
7. The material of the formwork should not bend or get perverted in presence of sun, rain or
water at the time of concreting.
8. It should be lightweight.
9. It should be easy to remove.
TYPES OF LOADS ON STRUCTURE
The different types of loads coming on the foundation of a structure are described below.
1. Dead Loads:
Dead loads consist of self-weight of the structure (weight of walls, floors, roofs etc). The weight
of the foundation and footings and all other permanent loads acting on the structure. These can
be computed by finding the weights of cubical contents of the different materials used for
constructing the structure.

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2. Live Loads:
Live loads consist of moving or variable loads like people, furniture, temporary stores etc. It is
also called super-imposed load.
3. Wind Loads:
The Wind acts horizontally on the surfaces of the walls, roofs and inclined roof of the structure.
That means it exerts uniform pressure on the structural components on which it acts and tends
to disturb the stability of the structure.

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The value of wind loads varies depending on several factors such as geographical location of the
structure, height of the structure, duration of wind flow etc.
4. Snow Loads:
The amount of snow load depends on various factors such as shape and size of roof structure,
roofing materials, location of the structure, insulation of the structure, duration, and frequency
of snow.
5. Seismic Load:
These loads are internal forces which act on the structure due to earthquake developed ground
movements.

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TYPES OF FOOTINGS USED IN BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
Footing is one of the most important parts of a structure which transfers loads of a structure to
the underlying soil. The selection of suitable type of footing generally depends on the following
factors:
1. The depth of the soil at which safe bearing strata exists.
2. The type and condition of soil.
3. The type of the superstructure.
TYPES OF FOOTINGS:
The different types of footings used for building construction are described below:
1. Wall footing/Strip footing.
2. Spread Footings
3. Isolated footings.
4. Stepped footings.
5. Combined footings.
6. Sloped footings.
7. Mat or Raft foundation.
8. Strapped footings
9. Pile foundation.
1. STRIP FOOTING:
It is a component of shallow foundation which distributes the weight of a load bearing wall
across the area of the ground. It is also known as wall footing.

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2. SPREAD FOOTING:
As the name suggests, a spread is given under the base of the foundation so that the load of the
structure is distributed on wide area of the soil in such a way that the safe bearing capacity of
the soil is not exceeded.

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3. ISOLATED FOOTINGS:
It is square, circular or individually rectangular slab of uniform thickness, provided under each
column.
4. STEPPED FOOTINGS:
The main purpose of using stepped footing is to keep the metal columns away from direct
contact with soil to save them from corrosive effect. They are used to carry the load of metal
columns and transmit this load to the below ground.

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5. COMBINED FOOTINGS:
When two or more columns are supported by a footing it is called combined footing. This
footing may be of rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. Combined footing is provided under
following situations.
When columns are close to each other and their individual footings overlap.
Soil having low bearing capacity and requires more area under individual footing.
The column end is situated near the property line and the footing can not be extended.

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6. STRAP FOOTING:
In such footing, the outer and inner column is connected by a strap beam, does not transfer any
load to the soil. The individual footing areas of the columns are so arranged that the C.G of the
combined loads of the two columns pass through the C.G of the two footing areas. Once this
criterion is achieved, the pressure distribution below each individual footing will be uniform.
7. MAT FOUNDATION:
This foundation covers the entire area under the structure. This foundation has only RCC slab
covering the whole area or slab and beam together. Mat foundation is adopted when heavy
structures are to be constructed on soft made-up ground or marshy sites with uncertain
behavior. Mat foundation is also known as raft foundation.

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8. SLOPED FOOTING:
The footings having sloping top or side faces are known as sloped footings. This type of footing
is useful in the construction of formwork.

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TYPES OF FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION:
Foundation is the lowest portion of a structure which transmits the load into the supporting
soil. The main purpose of the foundation is to distribute the total weight of the superstructure
over a large area of soil. Various types of foundation are described below which are used in
construction.

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TYPES OF FOUNDATION:
Foundation can be classified into two general categories:
1. Shallow Foundation.
2. Deep Foundation.
3.
1. SHALLOW FOUNDATION:
A Shallow foundation is a type of foundation in which the foundation is situated instantly below
the lowest part of a structure. The depth of foundation is equal or less than its width.
In this foundation, the total loads of the structure are distributed over a horizontal area at
shallow depth below the ground level.
CLASSIFICATION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION:
 Spread Footings.
 Combined Footings.
 Mat Or Raft Foundation.
SPREAD FOOTINGS:
Generally, spread footing consists of a wide base of foundation for transmitting the load to the
soil over a wider area.
COMBINED FOOTINGS:
Combined footing consists of a common footing provided to two columns which may be either
rectangular or trapezoidal.
 Strap Footing.
 Strip Footing.
RAFT FOUNDATION:
Raft foundation consists of dense reinforced concrete slab which covers the total bottom area
of the structure. It is provided in the soil with low bearing capacity where structural loads are
heavy.
2. DEEP FOUNDATION:

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A deep foundation is a type of foundation in which the foundation is placed at a deeper depth
below the ground level. The depth of foundation is much greater than its width.
Deep foundation can be further classified into three categories:
 Pile Foundation.
 Cofferdams.
 Caisson Foundation.
PILE FOUNDATION:
Pile foundation is a type of foundation where a slender member of wood or concrete or steel is
inserted into the ground for transferring the load of a structure. The load is transferred to a
stronger stratum by friction or by bearing.
Classification Of Pile Foundation:
Classification Based On function:
1. Bearing Piles.
2. Friction Piles.
3. Sheet piles.
4. Anchor Piles.
5. Batter Piles.
6. Fender Piles.
7. Compaction Piles.
Classification based On Material:
1. Timber piles.
2. Concrete Piles.
3. Steel Piles.
COFFERDAMS:
A Cofferdam is a temporary structure which excludes the water from a given site to enable the
construction on a dry surface.
Classification Of Cofferdams Based On Material:
1. Earthen Cofferdam.

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2. Rock-fill Cofferdam.
3. Single-walled cofferdam.
4. Double-walled cofferdam.
5. Crib Cofferdam.
6. Cellular Cofferdam.
CAISSON FOUNDATION:
Caisson is a watertight structure made of wood, steel or reinforced concrete which excavates
for the foundation of bridges, piers etc.
Types Of Caissons:
1. Open Caisson.
2. Box Caisson.
3. Pneumatic Caisson.
FOUNDATION ON SLOPING SITE
When structure is to be constructed on sloping ground, it becomes uneconomical to provide
foundation of the whole of the structure at the same level.
The work can be economized by providing stepped foundation. In stepped foundation
excavation of the foundation trench is done in steps. The depth of each step in excavation
should not be more than the thickness of the concrete bed block to be provided under the
foundation. The depth of each step should be multiple of even number of masonry courses.
The concrete beds meeting at the step should lap for length equal to the thickness of the
concrete bed or twice the depth of the step, whichever is greater. At no point, the depth of the
foundation should be less than 80 cm. This is essential from point of view of protecting the
foundation from weathering effects.

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If the bottom of different walls of the same structure happens to be at different levels following
I.S.I recommendations should be adhered to:
1. Depth at no point should be less than 1 m, in case foundation is located in soils and 0.6 m if it
is located in rocks.
2. Imaginary line joining upper surfaces of adjacent steps at step points should not have slope
steeper than 2:1 (i.e two horizontal: one vertical).
WHAT IS SUNK SLAB?

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SUNK SLAB:
Sunk slabs are slabs which are cast at a certain depth (200 or 300 mm or any other depending
on design) below normal floor level. This extra depth is used for placing pipes and utility ducts.
And then space is filled with sand or other light weight materials until the normal floor level.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION OF A SUNK SLAB:

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1. The concrete of the R.C.C. (floor and sunken slab) should be mixed with a waterproofing
material to get a denser, watertight concrete.
2. Then cement and waterproofing material should be diluted in water and splashed onto the
RCC sunken slab. Over that, a layer of plaster should be provided using a mortar plasticizer with
the cement mortar.
3. Brick laying of walls and plastering (prior to tiling) of the walls and floor should be done with
cement mortar mixed with a mortar plasticizer.
4. Tile fixing for the floor and walls tiles should be done with non-shrink, waterproof tile
adhesives to make the tiled area waterproof.
5. Sanitary pipe joints should be sealed with sealants specially manufactured for sealing
sanitary joints firmly so that no water can leak through.
USES OF SUNK SLAB:
Sunk slabs can be used in the following locations :
1. Bath room/toilet/latrine /wash area floor: The floor trap and the drainage lines can be taken
within the sunk portion
2. Porch slab: here the beams are inverted so that the beams do not protrude down side and a
plain surface is available.
3. Mid Landing on a staircase: The end beam is designed as an inverted beam so that there is
adequate head room available below the landing.
MORTAR VS CONCRETE: DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN MORTAR AND CONCRETE
MORTAR VS CONCRETE:

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Concrete and mortar are two different building materials used in construction works, but many
of us get confused on the differences between mortar and concrete. In this article, I will discuss
the basic differences between concrete and mortar.
CONCRETE:
Concrete is a composite material produced from a mixture of sand, cement, aggregates and
water in required proportions.
MORTAR:
Mortar is made from a mixture of cement, sand, and water.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MORTAR AND CONCRETE:
1. Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, aggregates and water, on the other hand, mortar is
made from cement, sand, and water.
2. Concrete is much stronger than mortar.
3. Mortar is less durable than concrete.
4. The water-cement ratio is higher in mortar, but the main aim of concrete is to keep the
water-cement ratio as minimum as possible.
5. Mortar is a good binding material and it is mostly used to bind the bricks together. Due to
greater strength and durability concrete is used in all type of construction works such as
buildings, bridges, roads etc.
6. Concrete gives a long outcome but mortar has to be replaced in every 20 – 30 years.
WHAT IS HIDDEN BEAM/CONCEALED BEAM –
PURPOSE, ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES?
HIDDEN BEAM
Hidden beams can be defined as the beams whose depth is equal to the thickness of the slab.
Hidden beams are also known as concealed beam.
Beams normally have a depth larger than the slab it is lifting, however, hidden beams have the
same depth as the slab, but it is reinforced separately from the slab, having stirrups and
longitudinal bars just as a normal beam. Hence they can’t be seen after fulfilling it with
concrete. They are hidden in the slab.

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Hidden beams are generally inserted within the suspended slabs where slab thickness is
considerable. The concept of concealed beam originated from flat slab concept. They are more
applicable in commercial buildings.

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PURPOSE OF HIDDEN BEAMS:
Hidden beams are used for the following purposes
1. To disperse loads on the supporting slab.
2. To break a wide panel of slab to considerable size.
3. To achieve maximum floor height.
4. To clear the way for electromechanical duct work.
5. To improve architectural aesthetic appearance by providing neat and leveled ceiling surface.
ADVANTAGES OF HIDDEN BEAM:

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1. It saves floor height clearance.
2. It allows if a brickwork needs to be constructed over the slab.
3. It is economical as it saves cost of materials, formwork, and labor.
4. It gives better aesthetic interior appearance.
DISADVANTAGES OF HIDDEN BEAM:
Structurally it creates a spanning problem, as spans for structural support are at right angle to
each other. This means one slab structurally rests over the other.
WHAT IS WAFFLE SLAB?
A waffle slab is a type of slab with holes underneath, giving an appearance of waffles. It is
usually used where large spans are required (e.g auditorium) to avoid many columns interfering
with space. Hence thick slabs spanning between wide beams (to avoid the beams protruding
below for aesthetic reasons) are required.
Since the tensile strength of concrete is mainly satisfied by the steel bar reinforcement, only the
“ribs” containing the reinforcement are kept where the remaining ‘unused’ concrete portion
below the neutral axis is removed, to reduce the self-weight of the slab. This is achieved by
placing clay pots or other shapes on the formwork before casting of the concrete.
PURPOSE OF WAFFLE SLAB:
Waffle slabs provide stiffer and lighter slabs than an equivalent flat slab. The speed of
construction for such slab is faster compared to conventional slab. Relatively lightweight hence
economical. It uses 30% less concrete and 20% less steel than a raft slab. They provide low floor
deflections. It has good finishes and robustness. Fairly slim floor depth and fire resistant.
Excellent vibration control.

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USES AND APPLICATIONS OF WAFFLE SLAB:
It is used where vibration is an issue and where large span slabs are to be constructed i.e areas
having less number of columns. For example airport, hospitals, commercial and industrial
buildings etc & where low slab deflections and high stability are required.
ADVANTAGES OF WAFFLE SLAB:
1. Larger span of slab and floor with less number of columns.
2. load carrying capacity is greater than the other types of slab.
3. Savings on weight and materials.
4. Good vibration control capacity.
5. Attractive soffit appearance when exposed.

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6. Lightweight.
7. Vertical penetrations between ribs are easy.
8. Economical when reusable formwork is used.
9. Fast and speedy construction.
DISADVANTAGES OF WAFFLE SLAB:
1. Require greater floor-to-floor height.
2. Requires special or proprietary formwork which is costly.
3. requires strict supervision and skilled labor.
4. Difficulty in maintenance.
5. Not suitable in highly windy area.
WATERPROOFING OF CONCRETE:
A concrete is said to be well designed when it is properly mixed, compacted, cured and set for
making impermeable itself. The uses of waterproofing agents should be kept away as much as
possible for working in ordinary situations. A thick concrete with least conceivable air voids
should accordingly be the essential thought in making of dampproof concrete. The
accompanying conditions should be fulfilled to accomplish the waterproofing of concrete.
1. Utilize the best accessible material.
2. Proportionate the aggregates by using fineness modulus strategy.
3. Utilize just as much amount of water is required to get the desired workability.
4. Mix the concrete completely.
5. Proper supervision amid laying and compaction.
6. Finish the curing of concrete.
However, in specific cases such as water retaining structures, structures that are to be
constructed in water-logged soil, or in soggy climate, it might be important to adopt additional
precautions to assure water-tightness. This incorporates the expansion of certain waterproofing
materials such as permo, sika, pudlo etc in the concrete mix at the time of mixing. This is named
as integral waterproofing.
RETAINING WALL DESIGN:

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The thrust from the backing which tends to overturn the wall or causes it to slide is considered
as the deciding factor in the selection of the section and type of the retaining wall.
The thrust by the backing depends on several conditions such as cohesion of soil, dryness of the
backing material, the manner in which the material is filled against the wall etc.
Having known The thrust the section is so designed that the self-weight is enough to resist the
thrust to slide the wall and the bottom width of the wall is such that the resultant force
(resultant of the weight of wall and pressure of filling behind) lies within the middle third of the
base.
This condition is essentially required to prevent the tendency of the thrust to overturn the wall
and to ensure that there is no tension at the wall base. It is equally essential to ascertain that
the maximum stress at the toe of the wall does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS TO BUILD A GOOD
STAIR
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF STAIRS:
Stairs are the steps arranged in a series to access the various floors of a building. A well-
established staircase should have an easy, quick and safe mode of communication between the
different floors of that building. The following points should be kept in view to design and build
a good stair.
1. LOCATION OF STAIR:
The staircase should be located at the right place in a building with adequate light and
ventilation. In a residential house, the stairs may be provided near the main entrance. In case of
a public building, it should be located at the central position for a quick accessibility.
2. WIDTH OF STAIR:

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The width of stairs depends on the traffic flow and may vary from building to building. In public
building, the width of stairs should be at least 6 feet and in a residential building, it should be 3
feet.
3. LENGTH OF STAIR:
The flight should provide a maximum of 12 and a minimum number of 3 steps.
4. PITCH OF STAIR:
The maximum pitch for a domestic building should not exceed 42° and for a public building, it
should not exceed 33°.
5. HEADROOM:
The minimum headroom in a staircase should not be less than 6 feet 8 inches.
6. LANDING:
The width of landing should be always greater than the width of a stair.
7. MATERIALS:
Fire resisting materials should be used to construct the staircase for better safety.
8. BALUSTRADE:
Balustrade should be provided in all open well stairs to minimize the accidents. Handrail must
be used on both sides of wide stairs (When stair is wider than 44 cm).
9. WINDERS:
To build a safe and easy staircase, winders should be avoided, but if necessary it may be
provided at lower end of the flight.
10. STAIR PROPORTIONS:
Uniform dimensions should be provided to the rise and trade in each step. A well-proportioned
ratio between the rise and the going is required to access the stairway more comfortably.
The following guidelines should be considered to obtain a good result:
1. (Going in cm) + (2×Rise in cm) = 60
2. (Going in cm) × (Rise in cm) = 400 (approx).
And the following rules should be considered to decide the step size:
3. In residential buildings, the average size of a step is used as (25 cm × 16) cm.
4. In public buildings, the average size of step varies from (27 cm × 15) cm to (30 cm × 13) cm.
PARTS OF STAIRS – COMPONENTS OF STAIRS
COMPONENTS OF STAIR – PARTS OF STAIR:

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The different components of stairs are described below:
1. STEP:
It is a combination of tread and riser which permits ascent and descent from one floor to
another.
2. TREAD:
The upper horizontal portion of the step over which foot is placed during ascending or
descending a stairway is known as tread.
3. RISER:
The vertical member of the step is known as riser. It is used to support and connect the
successive treads.
4. RISE:
The vertical height between two consecutive treads is known as rise.
5. LANDING:
A horizontal platform between two successive flight of a stair is called landing. Landing is used
as a resting place during use of the stair. It facilitates the change of direction of the flight.
Landing which extends for full width of the staircase is known as half-space landing. Landing
extending for only half the width of staircase is known as quarter space landing.
6. NOSING:
It is the projecting part of the tread beyond the face of the riser. Nosing is usually rounded to
give good aesthetic effect to the treads and make staircase convenient and easy to use.
7. GOING:
The horizontal distance between without the faces of two consecutive risers is known as going
of steps.
8. FLIGHT:

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A continuous series of steps without any break between landings or landing and flooring is
known as flight.
9. HEAD ROOM:
The vertical height between the tread of one flight and the ceiling of the overhead construction
is known as head room. Head room should be sufficient so as not to cause any difficulty to the
persons using the stair. Head room is also known as head way.
10. HAND RAIL:
It is an inclined rail provided at convenient height over balustrades. The inclination of the rail is
parallel to the slope of the stair. It serves as a guard rail and provides assistance to the users of
the stair. hand rails can be molded in so many architectural forms. It also acts as a protective
bar.
11. BALUSTER:
It is an individual vertical member made of timber, metal, or masonry and fixed between string
and hand rail to provide support to the hand rail.
12. BALUSTRADE:
Framework made from series of balusters and hand rail is known as balustrade. It is also known
as barrister.
13. PITCH OR SLOPE:
Vertical angle made by nosing line of the stair with the horizontal is known as pitch or slope of
the stair.
14. RUN:
The total length of the stair in horizontal plane including lengths of landings is known as run of
the stair.
15. SOFFIT:
The undersurface of the stair is known as soffit. It is either finished with plaster or covered with
a ceiling.
16. SCOTIA:
It is a sort of additional moulding provided under the nosing or tread to beautify the step of
elevation.
17. NEWEL-POST:
It is a vertical timber or steel post provided at the head, foot or at point where the balustrade
changes its direction. It is also used for supporting the hand rail.
18. STRINGS OR STRINGERS:
These are the sloping wooden members of a stair, used to support the end of the steps.
Stringers may be two types, Cut or open type and closed or housed type. In case of former type,
the upper edge is cut exactly to sie to receive the ends of steps. In latter type i.e closed or
housed type, the ends of steps are housed into the stringers.
19. WAIST:
The thickness of the RCC slab over which steps of RCC rest, is known as waist.
20. LINE OF NOSING:

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It is an imaginary sloping line parallel to the slope of the stair and touching the nosing of all the
treads.
21. WALKING LINE:
It is the approximate line on the stair, adopted by the people during use of the stair. This line is
located about 40 cm from the centre of the hand rail.
22. SPANDREL:
It is triangular framing under the outside string of an open string stair.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF BRIDGE
1. DECK:
Deck is the portion which carries all the traffic.
2. SUPERSTRUCTURE:
The portion which supports the deck slab and girder and connects one sub structure to the
other. That means all the elements of the bridge attached to a supporting system can be
categorized as superstructure.
3. SUB STRUCTURE:
The parts of the bridge which support the superstructure and transmits all the structural loads
of the bridge to the foundations. For example piers, abutments etc.
4. FOUNDATION:
Foundation is the portion which transmits loads to the bearing strata. Foundation is required to
support the piers, bridge towers, portal frames. Generally, piles and well foundations such as H-
pile, bore pile, pipe pile or precast concrete piles are adopted.
6. GIRDER OR BEAM:

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Beam or girder is the part of superstructure which bends along the span. The deck is supported
by beams.
7. BRIDGE TOWER:
It is the vertical supporting part used for cable stayed or suspension bridge. High strength
concrete and Insitu method are adopted to construct the bridge tower.

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Cable stayed
bridge
8. PIER CAP:
Pier cap is the topmost part of a pier which transfers loads from superstructure to the pier. It is
also known as headstock. It provides sufficient seating for the girders and distributes the loads
from the bearings to the piers.
9. PIER:
Pier is the part of the substructure that supports the superstructure and transfers loads of
super structure to the foundations. Pier is suitable for spanned bridges with maximum width of
deck up to 8 m (2 traffic lanes). The shape and size of pier mainly depend on aesthetics, site,
space and economic constraints of the construction. Usually, bridge pier is constructed by in
situ method with large panel formwork.

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10. BEARINGS:
Bearing is a device which supports the parts of superstructure and transfers loads and
movements from the deck to the substructure and foundation. The main purpose of providing a
bearing is to permit controlled movement and decrease the stress involved.

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11. PILE CAP AND PILES:
Pile is a slender member driven into the surrounding soil to resist the loads. Pile cap is a thick
reinforced concrete slab cast on top of the group piles to distribute loads.
Bridge Foundation Pile Cap Process
12. BRIDGE ANCHOR:
Bridge anchor is only used in suspension and cable-stayed bridges to resist the pull from
suspension cable or counter span of the bridge.

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13. SUSPENSION CABLE:
It is used in suspension and cable-stayed bridges for the hanging, supporting and counter
balancing of the bridge deck.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PIER AND ABUTMENT
PIER:
The intermediate supports for the superstructure of a multi-span bridge are known as piers.
A pier essentially consists of two parts i.ee a column shaft and the foundation. It is sometimes
provided with projections, called cut water and easy passage of water.
FUNCTION OF PIER:
The function of a pier is to transmit the load from the bridge to the underneath sub-soil.
TYPES OF PIERS:
Depending upon the type of superstructure, sub-soil conditions and the construction procedure
of the bridge, pier can be classified into the following two types:
1. Solid piers
2. Open piers.

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ABUTMENTS:
The end supports of a bridge superstructure are known as abutments.
Abutments are built either with brick masonry, stone masonry, mass concrete, precast concrete
blocks or RCC. The top surface of abutment is made flat for girder bridges or semi-circular arch
bridges but provided with skewbacks if the bridge arches are segmental or elliptical.
FUNCTION OF ABUTMENTS:
1. To transmit the load from the bridge superstructure to the underlying sub-soil.
2. To provide final formation level to the bridge superstructure.
3. To retain the earth pressure of embankment of the approaches.
TYPES OF ABUTMENTS:
Depending upon the layout plan abutments are classified into following types:
1. Abutments with wing walls.
2. Abutments without wing walls.

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WHAT IS CULVERT:
A small bridge having total length of 6 m or less than 6 m between the faces of abutments is
known as culvert. Culvert is a permanent drainage structure mainly constructed to carry
roadway or railway track over small streams or channels.
TYPES OF CULVERT:
Culverts are classified into the following four types:
1. Arch Culvert.
2. Open or Slab Culvert.
3. pipe Culvert.
4. Box Culvert.
1. ARCH CULVERT:
The culvert having its superstructure consisting of one or two arches constructed of any
suitable masonry is known as arch culvert.
In these culverts segmental arches consisting of brick masonry, stone masonry or concrete are
commonly used. These arches can be easily and cheaply constructed. The abutments and piers
or these arches are constructed sufficiently strong to take their lateral thrust Arch culverts are
specially suitable where the approaches are to be constructed in cutting.
2. SLAB CULVERTS:
The culvert, having its superstructure consisting of RCC slab which carries the bridge floor, is
known as slab culvert.

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