Basal ganglia
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The document describes the basal ganglia, which are a group of subcortical nuclei located in the forebrain. It discusses the anatomy and connections of the caudate nucleus, lentiform nucleus, claustrum, and amygdala. The caudate nucleus is pear-shaped and continuous with the lentiform nucleus and thalamus. The lentiform nucleus is lateral to the caudate nucleus and thalamus. It is divided into the putamen and globus pallidus. The claustrum is a thin layer of gray matter on the external capsule. The amygdala is an almond-shaped mass at the base of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle.
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The spinal cord begins at the foramen magnum and extends down to the L1-L3 vertebrae in adults. It has 31 pairs of spinal nerves and is protected by three meninges. It consists of an inner H-shaped gray matter core surrounded by white matter. The gray matter contains motor, sensory and interneurons while the white matter contains ascending, descending and association tracts. It is supplied by the anterior and posterior spinal arteries as well as segmental arteries that enter via the spinal nerves.
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The brainstem consists of 3 parts - the midbrain, pons, and medulla. It connects the spinal cord to the forebrain and has important functions like transmitting signals between the two, controlling vital reflexes like respiration, and containing nuclei for cranial nerves III-XII. The reticular formation is a network of fibers and neurons that extends through the brainstem and is involved in functions like motor control, sensory processing, visceral control, and neuroendocrine regulation. Other structures in the brainstem include the cerebral peduncles, cerebral aqueduct, inferior and superior colliculi, cranial nerve nuclei, and the pontine nuclei.
thebrainstem-170219034215.pdf
The brainstem consists of three parts - the midbrain, pons, and medulla. It connects the spinal cord to the forebrain and serves functions like relaying signals between them and controlling vital processes. The midbrain contains structures like the cerebral peduncles and corpora quadrigemina. The pons connects the midbrain to the medulla and contains pontine nuclei. The medulla ends at the spinal cord and contains the pyramids, olives, and nuclei for cranial nerves III to XII.
The brainstem
The brainstem consists of three parts - the midbrain, pons, and medulla. It connects the spinal cord to the forebrain and contains nuclei that control vital functions like breathing and heart rate. It also contains tracts that relay signals between the spinal cord and higher brain centers. The reticular formation is a network of fibers and neurons throughout the brainstem that plays roles in motor control, sensory processing, autonomic functions, and maintaining alertness. Important structures in the brainstem include the cranial nerve nuclei, pyramidal tract, olives, and red nucleus.
Spinal cord
The document summarizes key details about the spinal cord. It notes that the spinal cord is a long cylindrical structure in the central nervous system that extends from the brainstem down the vertebral canal. It connects the brain to the peripheral nervous system via 31 pairs of spinal nerves. The spinal cord has enlargements in the cervical and lumbar regions to innervate the upper and lower limbs. It contains gray matter in an H-shape surrounded by three columns of white matter. The document also briefly discusses clinical conditions that can affect the spinal cord.
dicot characteristics for the botany in science
1. A dicot leaf has an upper and lower epidermis separated by mesophyll tissue. The mesophyll contains palisade parenchyma and spongy parenchyma.
2. Vascular bundles containing xylem and phloem are located in the midrib and veins. Xylem transports water and minerals upward while phloem transports food downward.
3. Stomata for gas exchange are more numerous on the lower epidermis. They are surrounded by guard cells that regulate pore size.
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The cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain and fills most of the cranial cavity. It is a bilobed structure separated by a cleft called the longitudinal cerebral fissure. Each lobe, called a cerebral hemisphere, has an outer layer of grey matter and an inner core of white matter. The surface of each hemisphere is folded into convolutions separated by fissures called gyri and sulci, respectively, which allow the brain to accommodate more surface area in the limited skull space. The hemispheres are divided into four main lobes - frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital - based on prominent sulci and imaginary boundary lines.
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Basal ganglia
- 2. The caudate nucleus • is a pear-shaped, highly arched gray mass; • its broad extremity, or head, is directed forward into the anterior cornu of the lateral ventricle, and is continuous with the anterior perforated substance and with the anterior end of the lentiform nucleus; • its narrow end, or tail, is directed backward on the lateral side of the thalamus, from which it is separated by the stria terminalis and the terminal vein. • It is then continued downward into the roof of the inferior cornu, and ends in the putamen near the apex of the temporal lobe.
- 3. The caudate nucleus • It is separated from the lentiform nucleus, in the greater part of its extent, by a thick lamina of white substance, called the internal capsule
- 4. The lentiform nucleus • is lateral to the caudate nucleus and thalamus, and is seen only in sections of the hemisphere. • When divided horizontally, it exhibits, to some extent, the appearance of a biconvex lens while a coronal section of its central part presents a somewhat triangular outline. • It is shorter than the caudate nucleus and does not extend as far forward. • It is bounded laterally by a lamina of white substance called the external capsule, and lateral to this is a thin layer of gray substance termed the claustrum.
- 5. • Its anterior end is continuous with the lower part of the head of the caudate nucleus and with the anterior perforated substance. • In a coronal section through the middle of the lentiform nucleus, two medullary laminæ are seen dividing it into three parts. • The lateral and largest part is of a reddish color, and is known as the putamen, while the medial and intermediate are of a yellowish tint, and together constitute the globus pallidus; • all three are marked by fine radiating white fibers, which are most distinct in the putamen.
- 6. • The gray substance of the corpus striatum is traversed by nerve fibers, some of which originate in it. • The caudate and lentiform nuclei are not only directly continuous with each other anteriorly, but are connected to each other by numerous fibers.
- 7. The claustrum • is a thin layer of gray substance, situated on the lateral surface of the external capsule. • Its transverse section is triangular, with the apex directed upward. • Its medial surface, contiguous to the external capsule, is smooth, but its lateral surface presents ridges and furrows corresponding with the gyri and sulci of the insula, with which it is in close relationship. • The claustrum is regarded as a detached portion of the gray substance of the insula, from which it is separated by a layer of white fibers, the capsula extrema (band of Baillarger).
- 8. The nucleus amygdalæ • is an ovoid gray mass, situated at the lower end of the roof of the inferior cornu. • It is merely a localized thickening of the gray cortex, continuous with that of the uncus; in front it is continuous with the putamen, behind with the stria terminalis and the tail of the caudate nucleus.