The document describes a project to develop an automatic power factor correction system using a microcontroller. Power factor is an important measure of efficiency in power systems but decreases with increasing inductive loads. The project aims to design a microcontroller-based control system that can monitor power factor and switch capacitor banks in and out to maintain a high power factor close to unity. This will reduce losses in the power system and increase efficiency for both consumers and suppliers. The system design includes current and voltage sensors, a zero-crossing detector, microcontroller calculation of power factor, and relays to switch capacitors banks to compensate for inductive loads.
Automatic Power Factor Correction Using Arduino UnoVineetKumar508
It calculates the power factor of load using ZCD and an Arduino program based on P.F. it determines the
how much compensating element should be added to load to make P.F. near to unity. You can also add IoT to monitor the power consumption, Voltage, Current an P. F. of the load remotely.
We had made a working model on static VAR compensator which is made by power electronic switch and mechanically switched. We had chosen mechanically switched capacitor method to improved receiving end voltage as well as power factor.
Automatic Power Factor Correction Using Arduino UnoVineetKumar508
It calculates the power factor of load using ZCD and an Arduino program based on P.F. it determines the
how much compensating element should be added to load to make P.F. near to unity. You can also add IoT to monitor the power consumption, Voltage, Current an P. F. of the load remotely.
We had made a working model on static VAR compensator which is made by power electronic switch and mechanically switched. We had chosen mechanically switched capacitor method to improved receiving end voltage as well as power factor.
This presentation was presented to Dr. Chongru Liu in North China Electric Power University,Beijing,China by Mr. Aazim Rasool. This presentation will help to understand the control of HVDC system. Animations are not working like ppt. so I apologize on this.
Introduction to reactive power control in electrical powerDr.Raja R
Introduction to reactive power control in electrical power
Reactive power in transmission line :
Reactive power control
Reactive power and its importance
Apparent Power
Reactive Power
Apparent Power
Reactive Power Formula
Generation of High D.C. Voltage (HVDC generation)RP6997
Generation of high dc voltage using different methods like half wave and full wave rectifier, voltage doubler circuits, voltage multiplier circuits, cockcroft-walton circuits and van de graaff generators.
Micro-controller based Automatic Power Factor Correction System ReportTheory to Practical
This project report represents one of the most effective automatic power factor improvements by using static capacitors which will be controlled by a Microcontroller with very low cost although many existing systems are present which are expensive and difficult to manufacture. In this study, many small rating capacitors are connected in parallel and a reference power factor is set as standard value into the microcontroller IC. Suitable number of static capacitors is automatically connected according to the instruction of the microcontroller to improve the power factor close to unity. Some tricks such as using resistors instead of potential transformer and using one of the most low cost microcontroller IC (ATmega8) which also reduce programming complexity that make it one of the most economical system than any other controlling system.
This presentation was presented to Dr. Chongru Liu in North China Electric Power University,Beijing,China by Mr. Aazim Rasool. This presentation will help to understand the control of HVDC system. Animations are not working like ppt. so I apologize on this.
Introduction to reactive power control in electrical powerDr.Raja R
Introduction to reactive power control in electrical power
Reactive power in transmission line :
Reactive power control
Reactive power and its importance
Apparent Power
Reactive Power
Apparent Power
Reactive Power Formula
Generation of High D.C. Voltage (HVDC generation)RP6997
Generation of high dc voltage using different methods like half wave and full wave rectifier, voltage doubler circuits, voltage multiplier circuits, cockcroft-walton circuits and van de graaff generators.
Micro-controller based Automatic Power Factor Correction System ReportTheory to Practical
This project report represents one of the most effective automatic power factor improvements by using static capacitors which will be controlled by a Microcontroller with very low cost although many existing systems are present which are expensive and difficult to manufacture. In this study, many small rating capacitors are connected in parallel and a reference power factor is set as standard value into the microcontroller IC. Suitable number of static capacitors is automatically connected according to the instruction of the microcontroller to improve the power factor close to unity. Some tricks such as using resistors instead of potential transformer and using one of the most low cost microcontroller IC (ATmega8) which also reduce programming complexity that make it one of the most economical system than any other controlling system.
Simulation and Analysis of a D-STATCOM for Load Compensation and Power Facto...IJMER
Power Generation and Transmission is a complex process, requiring the working of many
components of the power system in tandem to maximize the output. One of the main components to form
a major part is the reactive power in the system. It is required to maintain the voltage to deliver the
active power through the lines. Loads like motor loads and other loads require reactive power for their
operation. To improve the performance of ac power systems, we need to manage this reactive power in
an efficient way and this is known as reactive power compensation. In developing countries like India,
where the variation of power frequency and many such other determinants of power quality are
themselves a serious question, it is very vital to take positive steps in this direction.
The work presented here illustrates a method to compensate for the load reactive power using a
DSTATCOM
A DSTATCOM injects a current into the system to provide for the reactive component of the load
current. The validity of proposed method and achievement of desired compensation are confirmed by
the results of the simulation in MATLAB/ Simulink.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceresearchinventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Design and Simulation of Efficient DC-DC Converter Topology for a Solar PV Mo...Sajin Ismail
Modulated Integrated Converter systems are considered to be the new and global turning point in the field of
Solar PV systems. These converters are highly recognised for its modular size and compact nature and they are supposed to
be attached directly with each PV module and since one PV module is having the power rating of a few watts ranging from
0-500Ws, the design rating would be in the same range and thus the most vital condition in such a design is efficiency
under these relatively low loads. In this paper an isolated interleaved boost converter topology is considered in the DC-DC
section and which is designed and simulated for a specific power rating (250W) and the efficiency is analysed with varying
load conditions and compared with the target efficiency of the system.
In the modern power system the reactive power compensation is one of the main issues, the transmission of active power requires a difference in angular phase between voltages at the sending and receiving points (which is feasible within wide limits), whereas the transmission of reactive power requires a difference in magnitude of these same voltages (which is feasible only within very narrow limits). The reactive power is consumed not only by most of the network elements, but also by most of the consumer loads, so it must be supplied somewhere. If we can't transmit it very easily, then it ought to be generated where it is needed." (Reference Edited by T. J. E. Miller, Forward Page ix).Thus we need to work on the efficient methods by which VAR compensation can be applied easily and we can optimize the modern power system. VAR control technique can provides appropriate placement of compensation devices by which a desirable voltage profile can be achieved and at the same time minimizing the power losses in the system. This report discusses the transmission line requirements for reactive power compensation. In this report thyristor switched capacitor is explained which is a static VAR compensator used for reactive power management in electrical systems.
Seminar Topic For Electrical and Electronics Engineering (EEE)
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
Contact with Dawood Bhai Just call on +92322-6382012 and we'll help you. We'll solve all your problems within 12 to 24 hours and with 101% guarantee and with astrology systematic. If you want to take any personal or professional advice then also you can call us on +92322-6382012 , ONLINE LOVE PROBLEM & Other all types of Daily Life Problem's.Then CALL or WHATSAPP us on +92322-6382012 and Get all these problems solutions here by Amil Baba DAWOOD BANGALI
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Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Event Management System Vb Net Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
In present era, the scopes of information technology growing with a very fast .We do not see any are untouched from this industry. The scope of information technology has become wider includes: Business and industry. Household Business, Communication, Education, Entertainment, Science, Medicine, Engineering, Distance Learning, Weather Forecasting. Carrier Searching and so on.
My project named “Event Management System” is software that store and maintained all events coordinated in college. It also helpful to print related reports. My project will help to record the events coordinated by faculties with their Name, Event subject, date & details in an efficient & effective ways.
In my system we have to make a system by which a user can record all events coordinated by a particular faculty. In our proposed system some more featured are added which differs it from the existing system such as security.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSE
automatic power factor correction report
1. PROJECT’17 Automatic Power Factor Correction
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS, SCET
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
In the present technological revolution, power is very precious and the power system
is becoming more and more complex with each passing day. As such it becomes
necessary to transmit each unit of power generated over increasing distances with
minimum loss of power. However, with increasing number of inductive loads, large
variation in load etc. the losses have also increased manifold. Hence, it has become
prudent to find out the causes of power loss and improve the power system. Due to
increasing use of inductive loads, the load power factor decreases considerably which
increases the losses in the system and hence power system losses its efficiency.
Power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to apparent
power. This definition is often mathematically represented as KW/KVA, where the
numerator is the active (real) power and the denominator is the (active + reactive) or
apparent power. It is a measure of how effectively the current is being converted into
useful work output. A load with a power factor of 1.0 result in the most efficient
loading of the supply and a load with a power factor of 0.5 will result in much higher
losses in the supply system. A poor power factor can be the result of either a
significant phase difference between the voltage and current at the load terminals, or it
can be due to a high harmonic content or distorted/discontinuous current waveform.
Poor load current phase angle is generally the result of an inductive load such as an
induction motor, power transformer, lighting ballasts, welder or induction furnace. A
distorted current waveform can be the result of a rectifier, variable speed drive,
switched mode power supply, discharge lighting or other electronic load.
Automatic power factor correction techniques can be applied to
industrial units, power systems and also households to make them stable. As a result,
the system becomes stable and efficiency of the system as well as of the apparatus
2. PROJECT’17 Automatic Power Factor Correction
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS, SCET
increases. Therefore, the use of microcontroller based power factor corrector results in
reduced overall costs for both the consumers and the suppliers of electrical energy.
Power factor correction using capacitor banks reduces reactive
power consumption which will lead to minimization of losses and at the same time
increases the electrical system ‘s efficiency. Power saving issues and reactive power
management has led to the development of single phase capacitor banks for domestic
and industrial applications. The development of this project is to enhance and upgrade
the operation of single phase capacitor banks by developing a micro-processor based
control system. The control unit will be able to control capacitor bank operating steps
based on the varying load current. Current transformer is used to measure the load
current for sampling purposes. Intelligent control using this micro-processor control
unit ensures even utilization of capacitor steps, minimizes number of switching
operations and optimizes power factor correction.
3. PROJECT’17 Automatic Power Factor Correction
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS, SCET
Chapter 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
Pavg = VIcosφ
Where, φ is the phase angle between the voltage and current. The term cosφ is called
the power factor. Power factor is the ration between the KW and the KVA drawn by
an electrical load where the KW is the actual load power and the KVA is the apparent
load power. It is a measure of how effectively the current is being converted into
useful work output and more particularly is a good indicator of the effect of the load
current on the efficiency of the supply system.
Apparent Reactive
Power Power
Active Power
Fig 2.1: Power Triangle
A load with a power factor of 1.0 result in the most efficient loading of the supply and
a load with a power factor of 0.5 will result in much higher losses in the supply
system. A poor power factor can be the result of either a significant phase difference
between the voltage and current at the load terminals or it can be due to a high
harmonic content or distorted/discontinuous current waveform. Poor load current
phase angle is generally the result of an inductive load such as an induction motor,
power transformer, lighting ballasts, welder or induction furnace. A distorted current
waveform can be the result of a rectifier, variable speed drive, switched mode power
supply, discharge lighting or other electronic load.
4. PROJECT’17 Automatic Power Factor Correction
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS, SCET
2.1. Power Factor Correction
Capacitive Power Factor correction is applied to circuits which include induction
motors as a means of reducing the inductive component of the current and thereby
reduce the losses in the supply. There should be no effect on the operation of the
motor itself. An induction motor draws current from the supply that is made up of
resistive components and inductive components.
The resistive components are:
i. Load current
ii. Loss current
The inductive components are
i. Leakage reactance
ii. Magnetizing current
MOTOR
CURRENT
MAGNETIZING
CURRENT
WORK CURRENT
Fig 2.2: Current Triangle
The current due to the leakage reactance is dependent on the total current drawn by
the motor but the magnetizing current is independent of the load on the motor. The
magnetizing current will typically be between 20% and 60% of the rated full load
current of the motor. The magnetizing current is the current that establishes the flux in
the iron and is very necessary if the motor is going to operate. The magnetizing
current does not actually contribute to the actual work output of the motor. It is the
catalyst that allows the motor to work properly. The magnetizing current and the
leakage reactance can be considered passenger components of current that will not
affect the power drawn by the motor, but will contribute to the power dissipated in the
supply and distribution system.
5. PROJECT’17 Automatic Power Factor Correction
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS, SCET
Chapter 3
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
3.1BLOCK DIAGRAM
Fig:3.1 Block Diagram of Automatic Power Factor Correction Circuit
The above given circuit for Automatic Power Factor detection and correction operates
on the principal of constantly monitoring the power factor of the system and to initiate
the required correction in case the power factor is less than the set value of power
factor
6. PROJECT’17 Automatic Power Factor Correction
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS, SCET
3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Fig:3.2 Circuit Diagram of APFC
3.3 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
The voltage signal obtained is converted into the digital by comparator circuit since
micro controller accepts the digitized format only. This is given to the microcontroller
as one input. Similarly, for current signal, from the current transformer is converted
into voltage signal by rectification. As previously digitized the voltage signal, this
current signal in the form of voltage is also digitized by the comparator circuit.
7. PROJECT’17 Automatic Power Factor Correction
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS, SCET
These two digitized signals i.e. voltage and currents are sent to the
microcontroller as the inputs. According to the program written microcontroller
calculates the time difference between the zero crossings of these two signals. This
time difference is indirectly proportional to the system power factor. The information
about this power factor and the power loss is displayed on the LCD display. And
according to the range calculated by the microcontroller program; this drives the
relays which switches the shunt capacitors across the load.
While increasing of the inductive load by connecting the other loads like motors to
this circuit results in reduced power factor. This will make the microcontroller to
drive the more number of relays resulting in more shunt capacitors to be connected.
In this project simple method of capacitor requirement calculation used based
on the time delay between the voltage and current to bring the power factor near to
unity. But in real time applications it will not be so. It requires the calculations like
load current magnitude and KVAR requirement etc. Number of capacitors
requirements depends on the load on the particular system. These parameters must be
considered while dealing with the commercial power factor improvement or
compensating products.
3.3.1 Zero crossing detector
A zero crossing is a point where the sign of a mathematical function changes (e.g.
from positive to negative), represented by the crossing of the axis (zero value) in the
graph of the function. It is a commonly used term in electronics, mathematics, sound
and image processing. In alternating current, the zero-crossing is the instantaneous
point at which there is no voltage present. Ina a sine wave this condition normally
occurs twice in a cycle.
A zero crossing detector is an important application of op-amp comparator circuit. It
can also be referred to as a sine to square wave converter. Anyone of the inverting or
the non-inverting comparators can be used as a zero crossing detector. The reference
voltage in this case is set to zero. The output voltage waveform shows when and in
8. PROJECT’17 Automatic Power Factor Correction
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS, SCET
what direction an input signal crosses zero volts. If input voltage is a low frequency
signal, then output voltage will be less quick to switch from one saturation point to
another. And if there is noise in between the two input nodes, the output may fluctuate
between positive and negative saturation voltage ‗Vsat‘. .Here IC LM358 is used as a
zero crossing detector.
Fig:3.3 Zero Crossing Detector
3.3.2 Design of capacitor
Motor input = P, Original P.F = Cosθ1, Final P.F = Cosθ2
Required Capacitor
kVAR = P (Tan θ1 – Tan θ2)
We know that; IC = V/ XC
Whereas XC = 1 / 2 π F C
IC = V / (1 / 2 π F C)
IC = V 2 F C
And,
kVAR = (V x IC) / 1000 … [kVAR = (V x I)/ 1000]
We have already calculated the required Capacity of Capacitor in kVAR, so we can
easily convert it into Farads by using this simple formula
Required Capacity of Capacitor in Farads/Microfarads
C = kVAR / (2 π f V2) in microfarad
9. PROJECT’17 Automatic Power Factor Correction
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS, SCET
3.4 COMPONENTS AND THEIR DESCRIPTION
3.4.1 Potential Transformer
A potential transformer, a voltage transformer or a laminated core transformer is the
most common type of transformer widely used in electrical power transmission and
appliances to convert mains voltage to low voltage in order to power low power
electronic devices. They are available in power ratings ranging from mW to MW. The
Insulated laminations minimize eddy current losses in the iron core.
A potential transformer is typically described by its voltage ratio from primary to
secondary. A 600:120 potential transformer would provide an output voltage of 120V
when a voltage of 600V is impressed across the primary winding. The potential
transformer here has a voltage ratio of 230:24 i.e., when the input voltage is the single
phase voltage 230V, the output is 24V.
Fig:3.4.1 Potential transformer used as an Instrument Transformer
The potential transformer here is being used for voltage sensing in the line. They are
designed to present negligible load to the supply being measured and have an accurate
voltage ratio and phase relationship to enable accurate secondary connected metering.
The potential transformer is used to supply a voltage of about 12V to the Zero
Crossing Detectors for zero crossing detection. The outputs of the potential
10. PROJECT’17 Automatic Power Factor Correction
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS, SCET
transformer are taken from one of the peripheral terminals and the central terminal as
only a voltage of about 12V is sufficient for the operation of Zero crossing detector
circuit.
3.4.2 Current Transformer:
The current transformer is an instrument transformer used to step-down the current in
the circuit to measurable values and is thus used for measuring alternating currents.
When the current in a circuit is too high to apply directly to a measuring instrument, a
current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current
in the circuit, which can in turn be conveniently connected to measuring and
recording instruments. A current Transformer isolates the measuring instrument from
what may be a very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are
commonly used in metering and protective relays.
Fig:3.4.2 Current Transformer
Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a single turn wire of a very large
cross-section as its primary winding and the secondary winding has a large number of
turns, thereby reducing the current in the secondary to a fraction of that in the
primary. Thus, it has a primary winding, a magnetic core and a secondary winding.
The alternating current in the primary produces an alternating magnetic field in the
magnetic core, which then induces an alternating current in the secondary winding
circuit.
11. PROJECT’17 Automatic Power Factor Correction
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS, SCET
3.4.3 Capacitor Bank
Capacitor banks may also be used in direct current power supplies to increase stored
energy and improve the ripple current capacity of the power supply. The capacitor
bank consists of a group of four ac capacitors, all rated at 400V, 50 Hz i.e., the supply
voltage and frequency. The value of capacitors is different and it consists of four
capacitors of 2.5farad. All the capacitors are connected in parallel to one another and
the load. The capacitor bank is controlled by the relay module and is connected across
the line. The operation of a relay connects the associated capacitor across the line in
parallel with the load and other capacitors.
Fig:3.4.3 Capacitor Bank
3.4.4 LM358
The abbreviation LM358 indicates an integrated circuit to 8 feet, containing
two operational amplifiers at low power. The LM358 is designed for general use
as amplifiers, high-pass filters and low, band pass filters and analogue adders.
One of the particularities of this integrated is to be designed to be able to operate with
a single static power that ranges from a minimum of 3 V to a maximum of 32 V
although typically there settles at levels between 5 V and 15 V. In fact, , while most of
12. PROJECT’17 Automatic Power Factor Correction
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS, SCET
the integrated circuits containing the operational needs two power supplies, a positive
and a negative, the LM358 can be connected to one positive supply while the negative
supply is replaced by the mass . However, depending on the needs, it can also introduce
the negative power supply by connecting the leg called ground to the appropriate
generator. In feeding regime double the voltage range is ± 1.5 ÷ 16 V.
Fig:3.4.4 LM358 Op-amp
3.4.5 Summer/Adder (X-OR) gate:
They provide the system designer with a means for implementation of the
EXCLUSIVE OR function. Logic gates utilize silicon gate CMOS technology to
achieve operating speeds similar to LSTTL gates with the low power consumption of
standard CMOS integrated circuits. All devices have the ability to drive STTL loads.
The HCT logic family is functionally pin compatible with the standard LS logic
family.
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Fig:3.4.5 X-OR gate
3.4.6 Relay Driver:
The ULN2003A are high voltage, high current Darlington arrays each containing seven
open collector Darlington pairs with common emitters. Each channel rated at 500mA
and can withstand peak currents of 600mA. Suppression diodes are included for
inductive load driving and the inputs are pinned opposite the outputs to simplify board
layout. The four versions interface to all common logic families:
Fig:3.4.6 ULN 2003A
These versatile devices are useful for driving a wide range of loads including solenoids,
relays, DC motors, LED displays filament lamps, thermal print heads and high power
buffers. The ULN2001A/2002A/2003A and 2004A are supplied in 16 pin plastic DIP
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packages with a copper lead frame to reduce thermal resistance. They are available also
in small outline package (SO-16) as ULN2001D/2002D/2003D/2004D
Fig:3.4.6 Pinout of uln2003a
3.4.7 RELAY
The relays used in the control circuit are high-quality Single Pole-Double Throw
(SPDT), sealed 6V Sugar Cube Relays. These relays operate by virtue of an
electromagnetic field generated in a solenoid as current is made to flow in its winding.
The control circuit of the relay is usually low power (here, a 6V supply is used) and the
controlled circuit is a power circuit with voltage around 230V ac.
The relays are individually driven by the relay driver through a 6V power supply.
Initially the relay contacts are in the Normally Open ‘state. When a relay operates, the
electromagnetic field forces the solenoid to move up and thus the contacts of the
external power circuit are made. As the contact is made, the associated capacitor is
connected in parallel with the load and across the line. The relay coil is rated up to 8V,
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with a minimum switching voltage of 5V. The contacts of the relay are rated up to 7A
@ 270C AC and 7A @ 24V DC.
Fig:3.4.7 relay
3.4.8 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
LCD panel consist of two patterned glass panels in which crystal is filled
under vacuum. The thickness of glass varies according to end use. Most of the LCD
modules have glass thickness in the range of 0.70 to 1.1mm.
Normally these liquid crystal molecules are placed between glass plates to form a
spiral stair case to twist the light. These LCD cannot display any information directly.
These act as an interface between electronics and electronics circuit to give a visual
output. The values are displayed in the 2x16 LCD modules after converting suitably.
The liquid crystal display (LCD), as the name suggests is a technology based on the
use of liquid crystal. It is a transparent material but after applying voltage it becomes
opaque. This property is the fundamental operating principle of LCDs.
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Fig:3.4.8 Liquid Crystal Display
3.4.9 Arduino Uno
Fig:3.4.9 Arduino Uno
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328. It has 14 digital
input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz
ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.
It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a
computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get
started.
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The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-
serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2)
programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.
The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power
supply. The power source is selected automatically.
External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or
battery.
Microcontroller ATmega328
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V
Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V
Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA
Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader
SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328)
EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328)
Clock Speed 16 MHz
The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software (download). Select
"Arduino Uno from the Tools > Board menu (according to the microcontroller on your
board). For details, see the reference and tutorials. The ATmega328 on the Arduino
Uno comes pre burned with a bootloader that allows you to upload new code to it
without the use of an external hardware programmer. It communicates using the
original STK500 protocol (reference, C header files).You can also bypass the
bootloader and program the microcontroller through the ICSP (In-Circuit Serial
Programming) header; see these instructions for details.
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Chapter 4
RESULT ANALYSIS
4.1 RESULT
The expected outcome of this project is to measuring the power factor value
displaying it in the LCD and to improve power factor using capacitor bank and reduce
current draw by the load using microcontroller and proper algorithm to turn on
capacitor automatically, determine and trigger sufficient switching of capacitor in
order to compensate excessive reactive components, thus bringing power factor near
to unity ,there by improving the efficiency of the system and reducing the electricity
bill.
To verify the performance of the automatic power factor correction using
microcontroller a prototype is developed and tested. Figure shows the system setup
for the automatic power correction using microcontroller. The power supply is of 12-
6V using step down transformer. And it contains a microcontroller, LCD module
which is displaying correct power factor and relays which help to include capacitor
banks to the circuit as per the necessity. Prototype is verified using, an inductive load.
Which initially gives a lagging power factor, which by than gives an improved power
factor close to unity by the proper working of the APFC unit.
Fig:4.1
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4.2 WORKING MODEL
Fig:4.2 Project Model
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4.3 PROTEUS SIMULATION
Fig:4.3.1 ZCD Simulation in Multisim Software
Fig:4.3.2 ZCD outputs of current and voltage as inputs to the X-OR
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Chapter 5
FUTURE SCOPE
The automotive power factor correction using capacitive load banks is very efficient
as it reduces the cost by decreasing the power drawn from the supply. As it operates
automatically, manpower is not required and this Automated Power Factor Correction
using capacitive load banks can be used for the industries purpose in the future
5.1 ADVERSE EFFECT OF OVER CORRECTION
1. Power system becomes unstable
2. Resonant frequency is below the line frequency
3. Current and voltage increases
5.2 ADVANTAGES OF CORRECTED POWER FACTOR
1. Reactive power decreases
2. Avoid poor voltage regulation
3. Overloading is avoided
4. Copper loss decreases
5. Transmission loss decreases
6. Improved voltage control
7. Efficiency of supply system and apparatus increases
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Chapter 6
CONCLUSION
The Automatic Power Factor Detection and Correction provides an efficient technique
to improve the power factor of a power system by an economical way. Static capacitors
are invariably used for power factor improvement in factories or distribution line.
However, this system makes use of capacitors only when power factor is low otherwise
they are cut off from line. Thus, it not only improves the power factor but also increases
the life time of static capacitors. The power factor of any distribution line can also be
improved easily by low cost small rating capacitor.
It can be concluded that power factor correction techniques can be applied to the
industries, power systems and also households to make them stable and due to that the
system becomes stable and efficiency of the system as well as the apparatus increases.
The use of microcontroller reduces the costs. Due to use of microcontroller multiple
parameters can be controlled and the use of extra hard wares such as timer, RAM,
ROM and input output ports reduces.
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REFERENCE
P. N. Enjeti and R Martinez, ―A high performance single phase rectifier with input
power factor correction, IEEE Trans. Power Electron.vol.11, No. 2, Mar.2003.pp
311-317
J.G. Cho, J.W. Won, H.S. Lee, ―Reduced conduction loss zero-voltage-transition
power factor correction converter with low cost, IEEE Trans. Industrial Electron.
vol.45, no 3, Jun. 2000, pp395-400
V.K Mehta and Rohit Mehta, ―Principles of power system‖, S. Chand & Company
Ltd,
International Journal of Engineering and Innovative Technology (IJEIT) Volume 3,
Issue 4, October 2013 272 Power Factor Correction Using PIC Microcontroller
www.arduino.cc
Design and Implementation of Microcontroller-Based Controlling of Power Factor
Using Capacitor Banks with Load Monitoring, Global Journal of Researches in
Engineering Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Volume 13, Issue 2, Version
1.0 Year 2013 Type: Double Blind Peer Reviewed International Research Journal
Publisher: Global Journals Inc. (USA) Online ISSN: 2249-4596 & Print ISSN:
0975-5861
Electric power industry reconstructing in India, Present scenario and future
prospects, S.N. Singh, senior member, IEEE and S.C. Srivastava, Senior Member,
IEEE.
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ANNEXURES
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ANNEXURE 1 (ARDUINO PROGRAMMING)
PROGRAM
Introduced in 2005, at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea, in Ivrea, Italy, it was
designed to give students an inexpensive and easy way to program interactive objects.
It comes with a simple Integrated Development Environment (IDE) that runs on
regular personal computers and allows writing programs for Arduino using a
combination of simple Java and C or C++
int x,y,r=0;
float z;//time,angle,pf,radians,pf2 relay
#define echoPin 11 // Echo Pin
#define pf1 9
#define pf2 8
#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
LiquidCrystal lcd(3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8);//LCD RS-12,En-11,D4-5,D5- 4,D6-
3,D7-2,
void setup()
{
relayinit();
usinit();
lcdstart();
digitalWrite(pf1,LOW);
}
void loop()
{
uscheck();
}
void usinit(void)
{
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pinMode(echoPin, INPUT);
}
void uscheck(void)
{
x = pulseIn(echoPin,LOW);//reads duartion pulse in Microseconds
y = (x*9)/1000;
z=cos(y*.01745);
if(y>10 && r==0){digitalWrite(pf1,LOW);r=1;}
else if (r==1 && y>10){digitalWrite(pf1,LOW); r=0;}
if(x>500)
{
delay(500);
lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print("THE BEST PROJECT");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print("POWERFACTOR=");
lcd.print(z);
}
}
void relayinit(void)
{
pinMode(pf1,OUTPUT);
pinMode(pf2,OUTPUT);
// pinMode(overvoltrelay,OUTPUT);
}
void lcdstart(void)
{
lcd.begin(16, 2);// set up the LCD's number of columns and rows:
lcd.clear();
}
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ANNEXURE 2
PCB DESIGN
We are here using the software "gEDA" for designing the PCB. gEDA is a powerful
package for designing single-sided and double sided PCBs.
It provides a comprehensive range of tools including schematic drawing, schematic
capture, component placement, automatic routing, Bill of Materials reporting and
file generation for manufacturing
RELAY MODULE PCB DESIGN
ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR
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ANNEXURE 3 (ATmega 328P)