Here are the answers to the quiz questions:
1. 4. Absent immune response
2. 1. Deletion of self reactive T cells in thymus
3. 2. Clonal deletion
4. 4. Positive selection of self reactive T cells
5. 2. Clonal deletion
Basic immunology, antigens and antibodiesOmair Riaz
An introductory presentation for undergraduate medical students on antigens and antibodies, immunoglobulins, primary and secondary antibody responses, active and passive immunity
An undergraduate lecture on immunologic tolerance, it's various types and how a breakdown of tolerance contributes to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. Additionally a small quiz at the end to gauge the students' learning.
Basic immunology, antigens and antibodiesOmair Riaz
An introductory presentation for undergraduate medical students on antigens and antibodies, immunoglobulins, primary and secondary antibody responses, active and passive immunity
An undergraduate lecture on immunologic tolerance, it's various types and how a breakdown of tolerance contributes to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. Additionally a small quiz at the end to gauge the students' learning.
Your body's immune system protects you from disease and infection. But if you have an autoimmune disease, your immune system attacks healthy cells in your body by mistake. Autoimmune diseases can affect many parts of the body.
No one is sure what causes autoimmune diseases. They do tend to run in families. Women - particularly African-American, Hispanic-American, and Native-American women - have a higher risk for some autoimmune diseases.
There are more than 80 types of autoimmune diseases, and some have similar symptoms. This makes it hard for your health care provider to know if you really have one of these diseases, and if so, which one. Getting a diagnosis can be frustrating and stressful. Often, the first symptoms are fatigue, muscle aches and a low fever. The classic sign of an autoimmune disease is inflammation, which can cause redness, heat, pain and swelling.
The diseases may also have flare-ups, when they get worse, and remissions, when symptoms get better or disappear. Treatment depends on the disease, but in most cases one important goal is to reduce inflammation. Sometimes doctors prescribe corticosteroids or other drugs that reduce your immune response.
My son had Wiskott Aldrich Syndrome (WAS). He had a bone marrow transplant in August 2006. His WAS is healed. This presentation was designed by some grad students. Some of the content is from my blog and it pictures my son, David. http://www.davidmcnally.blogspot.com
Your body's immune system protects you from disease and infection. But if you have an autoimmune disease, your immune system attacks healthy cells in your body by mistake. Autoimmune diseases can affect many parts of the body.
No one is sure what causes autoimmune diseases. They do tend to run in families. Women - particularly African-American, Hispanic-American, and Native-American women - have a higher risk for some autoimmune diseases.
There are more than 80 types of autoimmune diseases, and some have similar symptoms. This makes it hard for your health care provider to know if you really have one of these diseases, and if so, which one. Getting a diagnosis can be frustrating and stressful. Often, the first symptoms are fatigue, muscle aches and a low fever. The classic sign of an autoimmune disease is inflammation, which can cause redness, heat, pain and swelling.
The diseases may also have flare-ups, when they get worse, and remissions, when symptoms get better or disappear. Treatment depends on the disease, but in most cases one important goal is to reduce inflammation. Sometimes doctors prescribe corticosteroids or other drugs that reduce your immune response.
My son had Wiskott Aldrich Syndrome (WAS). He had a bone marrow transplant in August 2006. His WAS is healed. This presentation was designed by some grad students. Some of the content is from my blog and it pictures my son, David. http://www.davidmcnally.blogspot.com
this research is made by a dental student (me) under supervision of our oral medicine specialist dr. muhassad almudhafer and this research is collected from several articles hope u like it
this my email if u would like to contact me - mnmmnz4503.mm@gmail.com
An undergraduate lecture on role of MHC in antigen presentation including an overview of antigen presentation pathways as well as MHC Class I and II proteins
An undergraduate lecture on Congenital Anomalies, Inflammatory & Neoplastic Disorders of Esophagus for medical students delivered by Dr Muhammad Omair Riaz
An undergraduate lecture on pathophysiology of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease for Medical Students by Dr Muhammad Omair Riaz (Consultant Immunologist)
A lecture on Chemical Mediators of inflammation as a part of undergraduate pathology curriculum. The lecture is primarily based on Robbin's textbook of pathology
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
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New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
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Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
2. Every pathologist will see such patients!
There is often a delay in diagnosis (upto 3 yrs!!!)
Non immunologic derangements often precede
immunologic ones
Minimum Physician contact time leading to poor
patient advice.
Correct guidance can save hours of misery and years
of delay
3. “the scope of pathology is determined only
by the limits a pathologist sets for himself”
From inter discipline to multi discipline to
cross discipline
De compartmentalization of scientific
knowledge
4. A 45 ye old male presented with (2 month
history of)
Generalized weakness
Fatigue
Low grade fever
No clear diagnosis
Treated symptomatically
Week 1
5. Suddenly developed
Skin eruptions all over the trunk (Suspected drug
reaction?)
Oral ulcers
Hospitalized in critical condition..!
Week 2
7. Found to be positive
for HCV
And, then
Found to be Positive
for HBV as well!!!
Something wasn’t right!
Week 5
8. Developed multi organ involvement
Pleuritis
Seizures
Joint pains
Referred to Oncologist, pulmonologist,
gastroenterologist, Dermatologist, ENT
Specialist…. No clear diagnosis!
Week 7
9. Finally, someone advised Antinuclear
antibodies which turned out to be positive
A positive ANA is pathognomonic for SLE
Patient was traced back and called for
Immunology consult!
Positive ANA test was reconfirmed by indirect
immunofluorescence testing
Week 9
10. Diagnosis: SLE
What actually happened?
Serum of an SLE patient becomes an
antibody cocktail and the antibody excess
messes up the rapid tests such as Anti HIV
Antibodies , Anti HCV Antibodies, HbsAg
Week 10
11. As pathologist your index of suspicion
coupled with knowledge can help a relative,
and help in early diagnosis!
19. In US, 24 million people have Autoimmune
diseases (Population=370 million, Prevalence
= 6.5%)
Projected estimates for Pakistan
6.5% of population
14300000 people with Autoimmune diseases in
Pakistan (Maybe even more)
That means what?
20. Population = 11.17 Million
With a 6.5% prevalence of AI diseases
726050 patients
21. Initial symptoms
non specific
Diagnosis
Delayed
Missed
Result: Increased morbidity due to
complications
22. Example:
Life time risk for developing Rheumatoid
Arthritis
1 in 12 for women and 1 in 20 for men
Crowson CS, Matteson EL, Myasoedova E, et al. The lifetime risk of adult-onset
rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory autoimmune rheumatic
diseases. Arthritis Rheum. 2011;63(3):633–639. doi:10.1002/art.30155
25. Protected childhoods
Don’t play in the mud!
Sanitized environments
Overuse of disinfectent soaps, hand washes etc
Mineral water
The kids only drink bottled water!!
Antibiotic over use
He sneezed… Give him Augmentin
or Cefim right away!
26. Definition:
Tolerance is specific immunologic
unresponsiveness
i.e., an immune response to a certain antigen
[or epitope] does not occur, although the
immune system is otherwise functioning
normally
27. Tolerance:
Lack of reactivity to ‘own’ antigens
Autoimmune diseases are simply a
break down of tolerance !!
e.g Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE),
RheumatoidArthritis (RA) etc
28. “Deletion of self-reactive T-cell precursors
in the thymus”
In general, antigens that are present during
embryonic life are considered “self ” and do
not stimulate an immunologic response (i.e.,
we are tolerant to those antigens)
32. Peripheral tolerance is necessary because
some antigens are not expressed in the
thymus and therefore some self reactive T
cells are not killed in the thymus.
There are several mechanisms involved in
peripheral tolerance
35. Types:
Central tolerance: Bone marrow
Mechanism:
▪ Clonal deletion and receptor editing
Peripheral tolerance: Outside bone marrow
Mechanism
▪ Clonal anergy
36. To avoid clonal deletion , B cells undergo
receptor editing
Upto 50% of all B cells undergo receptor
editing
37. T CELLS
Central
Deletion
Peripheral
Anergy
B CELLS
Central
Deletion (with
receptor editing)
Peripheral
Anergy
38. Age
Lower age enhances tolerance
Structure & dose of antigens
Lower doses induce tolerance
Administration of immunosuppressive drugs
Induces tolerance
Type of cells involved
T cells become tolerant more readily
Administration of a cross-reacting antigen
Terminates tolerance.
41. The most important step in the production of
autoimmune disease is the activation of self-
reactive helper (CD4)T cells.
These self-reactive cells can induce either
cell-mediated or antibody-mediated
autoimmune reactions, respectively
42. Why are they important?
A connective tissue disease screening
questionnaire for population studies
(ElizabethW.Karlson, MD)
https://siteman.wustl.edu/prevention/ydr/
43. These can be:
Genetic
Endogenous/ Hormonal
Environmental
44. The time for life style intervention in autoimmune
diseases is always there
45. If there’s one in the family, there’d would
more! (Familial clustering!)
What’s a family?
Three generation first degree pedigree
49. “As many as 25 percent of people with an
autoimmune disease will experience
additional autoimmune disorders”
Some autoimmune diseases carry an
increased likelihood of having three or more
autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid
arthritis, multiple sclerosis, Hashimoto's
thyroiditis, and Sjögren’s syndrome
50. Are not causative
Only increase likelihood
What is likelihood, Btw ?
51. HLA DR4 increases the
chance of having RA by
50%
HLA DR increases the
incidence of RA from 1
per 1000 population to
2 per 1000 population
52.
53.
54. Are not causative
Only increase likelihood
What is likelihood, Btw ?
Need an external trigger
Environmental factors
55. Environmental causes may account for as
many as 70 percent of all autoimmune
diseases.
Infections, like the Epstein-Barr virus
Toxic chemicals, like cigarette smoke
Dietary factors, like excessive salt
56. Vojdani A, Pollard KM, Campbell AW. Environmental triggers and
autoimmunity. Autoimmune Dis. 2014;2014:798029. doi:10.1155/2014/798029
59. 25% RA associated mortality is due to
infections
60. 90% of all Autoimmune diseases occur in
women
A lower incidence in men means delayed
diagnosis and less clinical suspicion!!
What does this mean?
61. If there is no other identifiable cause, then a
higher index of suspicion is warranted in
Males with specific symptoms
▪ He has butterfly rash, he cant have SLE possibly
(Yes he has!!)
Females with general symptoms
▪ (She just has lots of aches and pains, can’t be an
autoimmune disease.. Yes, it might be.. Give her an
autoimmune screen.)
62. For example:
Smoke
Cigarette smoke
(Primary or secondary)
Smog??
(Cigarette equivalent of smog)
67. Chronic insomnia is
associated with an
increased incidence of
developing autoimmu
ne disease (Zeilinski et
al)
One night of poor
sleep causes genome
wide disturbance
(Satchin Panda et al)
68. Acute as well as long
term stress
predisposes to chronic
conditions including
autoimmune illnesses
69. In studies, regular exercise has been shown
to help dampen autoimmunity in patients
with lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple
sclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease, and
other conditions.
Studies have also shown that sedentary
patients have higher incidences
of autoimmune diseases than more active
patients
71. Age is just a number
There are no diseases that should be
considered more acceptable with age
Diseases are due to sarcopenia, not aging and
sarcopenia is controllable
More people in US are mobile at 90 than
Pakistani ppl mobile at 70
Sarcopenia doubles the autoimmunity
related functional dependence
72. Japanese migrants to US develop lower life
expectancies. Other way round isn’t true.
Why?
The china study (Hoax or true)
Longevity
Health span vs life span
Why do Mediterranean countries have lower
all cause disease mortality? (Mediterranean
Diet)
73. 1. Molecular mimicry
Immune response against a substance can induce
immune response against it’s molecular
analogues
2. Alteration of Normal Proteins
3. Release of SequesteredAntigens
Due to disease etc
4. Epitope Spreading
5. Failure of regulatoryT cells
77. When to screen a patient who has just “aches
and pains” for autoimmune disease?
1. When there is no underlying cause and
general symptoms are not resolving, or
2. a specific symptom develops , or
3. organ involvement becomes apparent
78. Just getting the autoimmune profile done is
the problem!
79. BASIC SCREEN
Blood CP
ESR
ANA
ENA Screening
RA Factor
C3,C4
CRP
EXTENDED SCREEN
Anti ds DNA
cANCA
pANCA
ENA ID
80. DISEASE SPECIFIC
Anti GBM
Anti NMDA
Anti thyroid
Anti Islet cell
Anti centromere
Anti cardiolipin
Anti beta 2 glycoprotein 1
etc
MONITORING
C3, C4
CRP
ESR
ANA/ ANCA
81. Half life 8 hours
Best marker of activation of innate immune
response & inflammation
Indicates
Infection
Ongoing inflammation
Incipient relapse
82. Half life 6 Days
Anti IgG, IgM
An IgM molecule that binds IgG
Present in majority of systemic autoimmune
illnesses and advancing age
Reduced in response to treatment
83. C4 much less than C3 physiologically
C4 is the first to be depleted
Best marker of sub clinical autoimmune
pathogenesis
C3 Normal C4 Normal Queisent disease/
normal
C3 Normal C4 reduced Indolent disease/ AI
pathogenesis
C3 reduced C4 reduced Progressive disease
84. Both ESR, CRP elevated in intractable cases
ESR raised, normal CRP – Non inflammatory
chronic disease
ESR normal, raised CRP – infection, acute
disease
ESR, CRP both normal - Queiscence
85. Coombs test – Direct/ Indirect
Anti platelets antibodies
Anti smooth muscle
Anti LKM
Anti Mitochondrial
86. Most tests are method dependent with varying
sensitivity (esp ANA, ANCA) – High inter and
intra assay reproducibility but questionable inter
method concordance
Biologic disease precedes clinical disease or vice
versa (Asymptomatic ANA positive or ANA
negatve lupus)
Undulating course (Test was positive last month,
negative this month, now again positive)
Treatment target is stopping biologic
progression or clinical disease?
87.
88. Get a baseline autoimmune screen
Extended screen in case of baseline positivity
Repeat at 3 months
Create a patient profile (Keep & tally the
records)
Please remember
Trend more imp than single reading
Profile more imp than single test
89. Autoantibodies can cause interference in both
non-immunoassay and immunoassay methods
for a number of analytes
TFTs,TG, prolactin, other hormones etc
High /low TFTs, CK, LDH, PRL, etc… Are they real
or interference artifacts…..Serial dilutions is the
solution!
Conversely, chemistry values reversed by
serial dilutions represent autoantibody
presence
93. Immunologic tolerance is an example of
1. Incomplete immune response
2. Ineffective immune response
3. Partial immune response
4. Absent immune response
5. No immune response
94. What induces tolerance?
1. Deletion of self reactiveT cells in thymus
2. Deletion of self reactiveT cells in Bone marrow
3. Deletion of self reactive B cells in thymus
4. Deletion of self reactive B cells in Bone marrow
95. Negative selection ofT cells in thymus is an
example of:
1. Clonal anergy
2. Clonal deletion
3. Receptor editing
4. Breakdown of tolerance
5. None of the above
96. All of these are mechanisms of peripheralT
cell tolerance except
1. Clonal anergy
2. Clonal deletion
3. Inhibition by regulatoryT cells
4. Positive selection of self reactiveT cells
5. None of the above
97. All of these are mechanisms of autoimmunity
except:
1. Molecular mimicry
2. Release of Sequestered Antigens
3. Epitope Spreading
4. Failure of regulatoryT cells
5. Negative selection of self reactiveT cells
98. Following factors are a cause of autoimmune
disease, except:
Genetic factors
Hormonal factors
Environmental factors
Dietary factors
None of the above
The classic picture is of a patient with apparently constitutional changes like fatigue and malaise for years if the disease is indolent and possibly primary unexplained endocrinologic disorders in florid cases