The document summarizes several theories of audience and media effects: 1) Audience Theory proposes that media producers target either mass or niche audiences and must understand their audience. 2) The Frankfurt School viewed audiences as passive, accepting media messages without question. 3) The Two Step Flow Theory posits that opinions flow from media to opinion leaders to the broader audience, making audiences more active. Opinion leaders influence others rather than the media directly influencing all. 4) Uses and Gratifications Theory sees audiences as active in choosing media to fulfill needs like diversion, relationships, identity and surveillance of useful information. Individuals consume media for different reasons.

1. Audience Theory
 All mediaproductshave atarget audience
 Theyalsosometimestrytoconstruct an audience
 Productscan have a massor niche audience
 The producerstextsneedtoknow the importance of theiraudience whenmakingproducts
The Frankfurt School
 The Frankfurtschool (a groupof mediatheoristsinthe 1920’s and 1930’s) were concerned
aboutthe possible effectsof massmedia
 Theyenvisionedthe mediaasa hypodermicneedle
 The contentsof the mediawere injectedintothe thoughtsof the audience,whoaccepted
the attitudes, opinionsandbeliefsexpressedbythe medium, withoutquestion
 Linearcommunicationtheory
 Passive audience
 No individual difference
The Two Step Flow
 DevelopedbyLazarsfeld(The people’sChoice 1940’s) and Katz(Personal Influence) inthe
40’s and50’s
 Two steps:
 First:Opinionleadersgetinfofromamediasource
 Second:Opinionleadersthenpassthe infoalongwiththeirowninterpretationontoothers
(Friends,family,fansetc...)
 More likelytobe influencedbyindividualsratherthanmassmedia(The people’sChoice
1940’s)
 Opinionleadersplayclose attentiontothe massmedia
 The audience isnolongerpassive
 In 2012 twitterproducedstatisticstobackup the Twosteptheory
 We are more likelytobuysomethingif someoneyoutrusttellsyouhow gooditis
 Strengths:Audiencesare active andseenaspart of a society
 Limitations:More than2 stepsinthe flow of communication?
Uses and Gratifications Theory
 Duringthe 60’s, as the firstgenerationtogrow up withtelevisionbecame grownups,it
became increasinglyapparenttomediatheorists thataudiencesmade choicesaboutwhat
theydidwhenconsumingtexts
 Far from beingapassive mass,audienceswere made upof individualswhoactively
consumedtextsfordifferentreasonsandindifferentways
 BlumlerandKatzexpandedthistheoryin1974, statingthat individualsmightchoose and
use a textfor the followingpurposes:
 Diversion:escape fromeverydayproblemsandroutine
 Personal relationships:usingthe mediaforemotionalandotherinteractions,e.g.
substitutingsoapoperasforfamilylife

2.  Personal identity: findingyourself reflectedintexts,learningvaluesandbehaviourfrom
texts
 Surveillance:Informationwhichcouldbe usefulforlivinge.g.Weatherreports,financial
news,holiday bargains.
 Since thenthe listof usesand gratificationhasbeenextended,particularlyasnew media
formshave come along.E.g. Videogames,the internet,social media,fashion,instant
messaging)
Instant Messaging
 For heavyusersitfoundthat affectionandsociabilitywere the mainmotivators
 For lightusersitwas fashionthatmotivatedthem
 For womenitwasto chat fora longtime andfor sociable reasons
 For menit wasshort conversationsandforentertainment
Video Games
 Enjoyment,social interaction,success,accomplishment
Social Media
 Nowusedas a place to ventyour opinion
David Morley (1980’s)
 Concernedwithreadingtexts
 Saidthere are 3 mainways we read:
 Dominantreading:The readersharesthe programmescode andfullyacceptsthe
programmes‘preferredreadings’
 Negotiatedreading:The readerpartlyshares the programmescode andbroadlyacceptsthe
preferredreading.Butaltersitina waywhichreflects theirpositionandinterests
 Oppositionalreading:The readerdoesnotshare the programmescode andrejectsthe
preferredreading,bringingtoframe an alternative view