This document discusses several theories of audience and media effects: - The Frankfurt School viewed audiences as susceptible to media messages like a hypodermic needle. - The two-step flow theory proposes that opinion leaders receive media messages and pass them to others in their social networks. - Uses and gratifications theory argues that audiences actively choose media to fulfill needs like diversion, social interaction, identity, and information. - David Morley's reading positions include dominant readings where audiences fully accept the message, negotiated readings where audiences modify the message, and oppositional readings where audiences reject the intended message.

1. SECTION A – Audience Theory
Question 1B
AUDIENCE
 All media products have a target audience
 They also sometimes (particularly in the case of propaganda) try to construct a niche
audience
 The producers text need to know the importance of their audience when making
products
THE FRANKFURT SCHOOL PENIS
 The FRANKFURT SCHOOL (a group of media theorists in the 1920s and 1930s)
were concerned about the possible effects of mass media
 They proposed the “effects” model, which considered society to be composed of
isolated individuals who were susceptible to media messages
 The FRANKIRT School envisioned the media as a HYPODERMIC
SYRINGE
 The context of the media were injected into the thoughts of the audience, who
accepted the attitudes and opinions and believed expressed by the media without
questions.
THE TWO STEP FLOW
Developed by Lazarsfeld and Katz in the 1940s and 1950s
 Two steps:
 First - Opinion leaders get information from a media source
 Second opinion - leaders then pass the information, along with their interpretation, to
others (friends, family, acquaintances, etc.)
 Audiences are active and seen as part of a society
 Social media is an example of the two step theory, allowing certain news trends to
“trend”
USES AND GRATIFICAITONS
During the 60s, most families has a TV, it became increasingly apparent to media theorist
that audiences made choices about what they did when consuming texts

2. SECTION A – Audience Theory
Question 1B
USES AND GRATIFICAITONS 1974
During the 60s, most families has a TV, it became increasingly apparent to media theorist
that audiences made choices about what they did when consuming texts.
1. Diversion – escape from everyday problems and routines
2. Personal Relationships – using the media for emotional and other interaction, e.g
substituting soap operas for family life
3. Personal Identity – finding yourself reflected in texts, learning behaviour and values
from texts
4. Surveillance – information which could be useful for living e.g. weather reports,
financial news, holiday bargains
Since then, the list of Users and Gratifications has been extended particularly as new media
forms have come along.
Uses and gratifications Example How does it appeal to the
audience
Diversion: Entertainment
and escapism
Music videos are a form of
diversion. Stopped and
watched, amerced in the
video.
Teenage girls, outfits,
having fun
Personal relationships Super fans who know the
spice girls, posters and
adverts
Posters, art
Personal identity Harassing people and
causing mischief and being
disruptive
Teenage girls could mimic
their actions and do what
they do
Surveillance and Information

3. SECTION A – Audience Theory
Question 1B
DAVID MORLEY
He says there are 3 ways we can read a media text
 Dominant (or ‘hegemonic’) reading
The reader shares the programmes ‘code’ (its meaning, system of value, attitudes, beliefs
and assumptions) and fully accepts the programmes ‘preferred reading’
 Negotiated reading
The reader partly shares the programmes code and broadly accepts the [referred reading,
but modifies it in a way which reflects their positions and interests
 Oppositional (counter hegemonic) reading
The reader does not share the programmes codes and rejects the preferred reading,
bringing to bear an alternative frame of interpretations