This document discusses several theories of how audiences interact with and interpret media. It outlines the hypodermic syringe theory from the 1920s-1930s which viewed audiences as passive receivers of media messages. The 2-step flow theory from the 1940s-1950s proposed that opinion leaders first receive information from media and then pass it along to others. Uses and gratifications theory from the 1960s recognized that audiences actively seek out media to fulfill certain needs like diversion, relationships, identity and surveillance. Later theories like David Morley's in the 1980s suggested audiences can have dominant, negotiated or oppositional readings of media texts.

1. Audience Theory
All mediahave atarget audience,theymayalsoattempttocreate an audience.Productscanhave a
niche audience or a mass audience.The producer’stextsneedtoknow the importance of their
audience whenmakingproducts.
The Frankfurt School (1920s-1930s) createda theorycalledthe hypodermicsyringe theory.This
meansthat the contentsof the mediawere injectedintothe thoughtsof the audience whoaccepted
the attitudes,opinionandbeliefsof the medium withoutquestion.
Lazarfeld andkatz (1940s – 1950s) came upwiththe 2 step theorywhichstatesthat firstly opinion
leadersgetinformation froma mediasource.Afterthisthe opinionleadersthen passthe
informationalongwiththeirinterpretation toothers(friends,familyandacquaintances). The
strengthof thistheoryisthat the audience isnow consideredtobe active and part of societywhich
isa muchmore realisticviewpointhoweveritislikelythatthere are more than2 stepsin the flow of
communication. Social mediais anevolutionof the 2stepflow theorywithnew toolssuchassharing
and retweeting.
By the 1960’s the firstgenerationhadgrownupto alwayshave TV in their home.Thisallowedthem
to make choicesaboutwhatmediatheyconsumedandwhen,now actively searchingoutmedia
rather thanjustpassivelyconsumingit.Thisproduced the usesandgratificationstheory byBlulmer
and Katz (1974) whichstatedthat individualsmightchoose anduse atextforthe following
purposes…
 Diversion– Escape fromeveryday problems androutines
 Personal Relationships – Using mediaforemotional andotherinteractione.g.substituting
soap operasforfamilylife
 Personal Identity - findingyourselfreflectedintexts,learningbehaviourandvaluesfrom
texts
 Surveillance – Informationwhichcouldbe useful forlivinge.g.weatherreports,financial
newsandholidaybargains
As newformsof mediahave beencreated(e.g.videogamesandthe internet) the listof usesand
gratificationshasbeenextended.
Spice girl’s musicvideoexample
Uses andGratifications Example How doesitappeal to the
audience
Diversion Watch withoutperforming
anothertask at the same time,
immersingyourself.
Clothing,dance routine,fun
and partylocationare all
appealingtoteenage girls
Personal Relationships Posters,fanmagazinesand
other
Allowsthemtoforma
personal relationshipwiththe
celebrities.
Personal Identity They performactivitieswe can
relate to(e.g.mischief)andwe
may be able to relate tosome of
the characters inthe video.
Can relate tothe behaviours
showninthe video
Surveillance andInformation none non

2. David Morley(1980s) suggeststhatthere are 3 differentwaystextsare ‘read’byanaudience…
 Dominant (Hegemonic) reading – The viewersharesthe programmes‘code’(itsmeaning
valuesattitudesbeliefsandassumptions) and fullyacceptsthe programmespreferred
reading.
 Negotiatedreading- The readerpartly shares the programmescode and broadlyaccepts
the preferredtreadingbut modifiesitinaway whichreflectstheirpositionandinterests.()
 Oppositional (counter-hegemonic) reading- the readerdoesnotshare the programmes
code and rejectsthe preferredreading,bringingtobearan alternative frame of
interpretation.