This document discusses several theories of audience: 1) The Frankfurt School's "effects model" viewed audiences as passive recipients of media messages. 2) The two-step flow theory developed in the 1940s-50s recognized that opinion leaders influence others through interpretation of media. 3) Uses and gratifications theory from the 1960s saw audiences as active consumers who use media for purposes like diversion, relationships, identity, and information. 4) David Morley's 1980s study identified dominant, negotiated, and oppositional readings that audiences can take from media based on their perspectives.

1. Audience Theory
What is Audience?
All mediaproductshave atarget audience
Theyall sometimes(Particularlyinthe case of propaganda) tryto construct an audience
Productscan have a massaudience ora niche audience
The producer’stextsneedtoknowthe importance of theiraudience whenmakingproducts
The first audience theory: The Frankfurt School
The Frankfurtschool (A group of mediatheoristsinthe 1920s and 1930s) were concernedaboutthe
possible effectsof massmedia
Theyproposedthe ‘effects’model,whichconsideredsocietytobe composedof isolatedindividuals
whowere susceptibletomediamessages
The Frankfurtschool envisionedthe mediaasa hypodermicsyringe
The contentsof the mediawere injected intothe thoughtsof the audience,whoacceptedthe
attitudes,opinionsandbeliefsexpressedbythe mediumwithout question.
A potential problem?The audience are purelypassive
The second theory: The two step flow
DevelopedbyLazarsfeldandKatzinthe 1940s and 1950s
Two steps:FirstOpinionleadersgetinformationfromamediasource
Secondopinionleadersthenpassthe information,alongwiththeirinterpretation,toothers(friends,
family,acquaintances etc.)
Strengths
Audiencesare active andare seenasa part of society
Limitations
More than two stepsin the flowof communication?
Social mediaandus sharingandre programmingandcausingthingsto trendisan example of the
evolutionof the twostepflowtheory.
Applyingthe twostepflowtheory
Are our opinionsabouttelevision,filmsorgroupseverinfluencedbyotherpeople?
Movingon fromthe twostepflowtheory,audiencesbecomingpassive
Duringthe 1960s, as the firstgenerationtogrow up withtelevisionbecame grown-ups,itbecame
increasinglyapparenttomediatheoriststhataudiencesmade choicesaboutwhattheydidwhen
consumingtexts

2. Far from beingapassive mass,audience weremade upof individuals whoactivelyconsumedtexts
for differentreasonsandindifferentways
The later became the usesandgratificationstheory
Uses and gratifications theory
ResearchesBulmerandKatzexpandedthistheoryandpublished theirownin1974, statingthat
individualsmightchoose anduse atextforthe followingpurposes(ie usesandgratifications)
1 Diversion - escape fromeverydayproblemsandroutines
2 Personal relationships - usingthe mediaforemotional andotherinteraction (egsubstitutingsoap
operasfor familylife)
3 Personal identity - findingyourself reflected intexts,learningbehaviourandvaluesfromtexts
4 Surveillance - Informationwhichcouldbe useful forliving(egWeatherreports,financialnews,
holidaybargains)
Since then,the listof usesandgratificationshave beenextended,particularlyasnew mediaforms
have come along(egvideogamesandthe internet)
Example of musicvideousingaudience theory:Spice Girls - Wannabe
Uses and gratification Example How does it appeal to the audience?
Diversion: Entertainment
and escapism
Their happiness and
watching the music
video in general
Women, young girls (teenagers) by
the use of outfits, dance routines,
alcohol, chaos
Personal relationships Super fans who know
everything about the
Spice Girls
Posters, fan magazines, spice girls
annuals
Personal identity Playing with peoples
hats, clothes, dinner
attire
Harassing people, causing mischief.
Could relate to one of them or mimic
what they do
Surveillance and
information
N/A N/A
Slightly more modern…David Morley
In a verysignificantstudyof audienceresponsestoapopularnewsmagazine programme inthe
early1980s.The Nationwide Audience,DavidMorleysuggeststhatthere are three maindifferent
kindsof readingaudience memberscanproduce:
Dominant (or hegemonic) reading
The readersharesthe programmescode (Its meaning,system of values, attitudes, beliefs and
assumptions) andfullyacceptsthe programmes preferredreading.EG:BBC News
Negotiatedreading
The readerpartlysharesthe programmescode and broadly acceptsthe preferredreading,but
modifiesitinaway whichreflectstheirpositionandinterests.EG:The majorityof newsoutletssay
that a situationisworse thanitis or don’tcompletelyrefertobothsidesof the story.

3. Oppositional (counterhegemonic) reading
The readerdoesnot share the programmescode and rejectsthe preferredreading,bringingtobear
an alternative frame of interpretation.EG:LouisTheroux programmesaboutgettingopinionson
bothsidesof the debate andrelatingitto our opinions.