The individual experienced many career failures and losses over multiple years including losing jobs, businesses and elections. However, after facing defeat in many areas of his life, he was eventually elected as President of the United States. Prior to achieving the presidency, he faced numerous setbacks such as losing his job, failing in business, his wife passing away, and being defeated in multiple campaigns for public office over many years.

1. • LOST HIS JOB
• GOT DEFEATED FOR LEGISLATURE
• STARTED BUSINESS AND FAILED
• WIFE DIED OF FATAL DISEASE
• EXPERIENCED NERVOUS BREAKDOWN
• CONTESTED IN ELECTION FOR SPEAKER IN
LEGISLATURE AND LOST
• TRIED FOR NOMINATION IN THE POLITICAL PARTY
AND LOST
• APPLIED FOR THE POST OF LAND OFFICER AND
DIDN’T GET IT
• CONTESTED FOR SENATE AND LOST
• CONTESTED FOR VICE PRESIDENT AND LOST
• AGAIN CONTESTED FOR SENATE AND LOST.

2. AND TWO YEARS LATER
GOT ELECTED AS PRESIDENT OF AMERICA
ABRAHAM LINCON

5. • Definition of attitude
• Hypothetical construct of attitude
• Definition of attitude scale
• Components of attitude
• Attitude scale
• Purpose of attitude scale
• Measurement of attitude
• Types of attitude scale
• Advantages and disadvantages of attitude scale
• Problems and limitation of attitude testing.

6. • Critical incidence technique
• Meaning C.I.T
• Definition
• Areas of C.I.T.
• Use of Critical incidence as a strategy
• Critical incidence record and report
• Criteria for using critical incidence technique
• How to record C.I.T.
• Characteristic to be observed
• Advantages and disadvantages

7. • “An attitude is a stable set or
disposition of opinion, interest or
purpose. We expect a certain kind of
experience and are ready to give
suitable response.”

8. • “The term hypothetical construct is used to
describe a variable that is not directly observable,
but is measurable by an indirect means such as
verbal expression or overt behavior - attitudes
are considered to be such variables.”

9. • “An attitude scale measures how the
participants feel about a subject at the moment
when he or she answers the question. Several
popular types of attitude scales are used in
nursing education evaluation.”

10. • Affective :- The feelings or emotions toward an
object
• Cognitive :- Knowledge and beliefs
• Behavioral :- Predisposition to action, Intentions,
Behavioral expectations.

11. • Attitude scales are used for measuring the
social attitude.
• Questionnaire is prepared, by the items in
the questionnaire is the attitude of an
individual towards a matter thing, and
object or system and score will be allotted
for each item.

12. • We will ask the individual to express his responses;
he is assigned a score which indicates the position.
• Some relevant and indirect statements will also be
used to reveal the attitude
• The scales also specify the crucial shades of opinions.

13. • To know the extent to which desirable attitude have
been developed in the students.
• To enable the students to develop desirable attitude.
• To help the teachers in good teaching
• To help teachers understand students
• To help students in their care plans

14. Measurement of attitude must include several
dimension if it is to be useful.

15. TYPES OF ATTITUDE SCALE
DIFFERENTIAL
SCALOGRAM
LIKERT/
SUMMATED
Q SORT
SCALING
SEMANTIC
DIFFERENTIAL

16. Guttman scales/Scalogram analysis
• It is based on the idea that items can be
arranged along a continuum in such a way
that a person who agree with an item or finds
an item acceptable will also agree with or find
acceptable all other items expressing a less
extreme position.
For example:- children should not be allowed to
watch indecent programmes and government
should ban these programmes. They all are
related to one aspect

18. • In this scale each score represents a unique set of
responses and therefore the total score of every
individual is obtained. This scale takes a lot of time and
effort in development.
• They are very commonly used in political science,
anthropology, public opinion, research and psychology.

19. The Q Sort technique
• It is used to discriminate among large number of
object quickly. It uses a rank order procedure and
the objects are sorted into piles based on similarly
with respect to some criteria. The number of objects
to be sorted should be between 60 -140
approximately.

20. • FOR EXAMPLE :-
Here we are taking nine
brands
On the basis of taste we classify the
brands into
Tasty Moderate Non tasty

21. We can classify on the basis of
prize also
low medium high
Then we can attain the perception of
people whether they prefer low prized
brand, high or moderate

23. Semantic differential scale
• This is a seven point scale and the end point of the
scale is associated with bipolar labels.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Unpleasant pleasant
Submissive dominant

24. The term is semantic differential scale refer
to any collection of rating scales anchored by
bipolar adjectives.
• It is a very flexible approach to obtaining measures
of attitudes.
• The object that is rated is called ‘concept’ and
almost anything can be rated including family
planning method, cosmetics, political parties etc.

25. • A semantic differential scale is based on a
seven point rating scale for each of number of
attribute relating to the research topic.
• The extreme point represents the bipolar
adjectives with the central category representing
neutral.
• Individual can score from 1 to 7 or -3 to +3. On
the basis of these responses profiles are made.

26. In the semantic differential scale only the
extremes have names. In between categories have
either blank spaces or sometimes a number.
examples:-
Good - - - - - - - - - - - - - bad
Honest - - - - - - - - - - - -dishonest
Progressive - - - - - - - - - - - behind the items.

28. Advantages of semantic
differential scale
• Simplicity
• Easy
• Too fast to administer
• Highly versatile,
• Reliable and
• Generally valid

29. Problems in attitude testing
• Attitude is a complex affair which cannot be wholly
described by any single numerical index
• Peoples attitude are subject to change
• It is also difficult to get valid responses
• The scores of the individual generally concentrate in
the middle
• Discrepancies between verbally expressed attitude and
overt behaviour have
• also been noted in a number of series
• Every observation of overt behaviour may not always
provide an accurate index
• of attitude.

30. Limitation of attitude scale
• An individual may express socially acceptable
opinion and conceal his real attitude
• An individual himself may not clearly aware of his
real attitude.
• Any individual may never have been confronted
with a real situation to discover what his real
attitude towards scientific phenomena.

31. Attitude is revealed through the behaviour of
the individual. But behavior itself is not always a
true indication of attitude
• Observation of behaviour may not always be
possible when a large sample is under study
• Social customs or the desire for social approval
may make man kinds of behaviour mere
formalities which are quite unrelated to the inner
feelings of an individual.
•

32. CRITICAL
INCIDENCE
TEHNIQUE

33. MEANING
• The critical and the steps which are useful
for analyzing of the event is known as
critical incidence technique.
• The description of incident should be
explained in detail, what a student did or
said that made a teacher to believe, that he
really understand something or failed to
understand it.

34. DEFINITION
• “The critical incident technique ´as one that makes a
significant differences in the outcome of an activity.
It may be the positive factors that contribute
towards the cause of behaviour or it may be the
negative factors that interfere with the completion
of the assignment.”
- Fivers and Gosnell,

35. AREAS OF C.I.T
It is a flexible method that usually relies on five
major areas:-
Determining and reviewing the
incidence,
Fact finding which involves collecting
the details of the incident from the
participants.
To identify the issues.

36. Afterwards a decision can be made
on how to resolve the issues based
on various possible solutions
Evaluation, which will determine if
the solution that was selected will
solve the root cause of the situation
and will cause no further problems.

37. USE AND APPLICATION
• Flanagon (1954) He developed the critical incident
technique as a method of gathering information
about effective or ineffective behaviour performed
by the airline pilots.

38. •
• Flanagan, Gosnell, Fivars used it in order to
develop categorization for assessing student
nurse performance

39. • Cormack (1983) The way in which he use
the technique as a means of examining the
role of the psychiatric nurse

40. • Rinon (1979) Used it to elicit the nurses
psychological role in caring for patients
during rehabilitation

41. • Benner (1984) adapted its used to explore
the shift from novice to expert practitioner
through the identification of competencies of
nurses at different levels of skill attainment

42. • Clamp (1984) how the technique was
used in the nursing education to increase
students awareness of nurses attitude to
patients and their levels of interpersonal
communication skills

43. Critical Incidence
Report/Record

44. Illustration for C.I.T.
BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES EVALUATION
Share own assessment of patient
needs with colleagues in the
nursing team
 Two critical incident reports
from team conferences
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION
 Identify
a) Learner behavior which assisted
team members in
understanding patient needs.
b) Learner behaviors which
interfered with the team
member’s understanding of
patient needs.

45. Criteria For Using Critical
Incident
• Observer has to observe actual behaviour and must
be reported
• All the relevant factors in the incident must be
given
• Definite judgment about the behaviour that is
considered to be critical

46. How to record the C.I.T.
• Total period of observation has to be written on the
form
• Number of incidents, effective and
ineffective behaviour has to be recorded
• Space for signature of the evaluator and the person
who is being evaluated should be provided.

47. CHARACTERSTICS
TO BE
OBSERVED

48. Actual
behaviour
Relevant
factor Definite
judgement
behaviour

49. ADVANTAGES
• Flexible method that can be used to improve
multiuser system
• Identifies even rare events
• Useful when problem occurs but the causes and
security are not known
• Inexpensive and provide rich information

50. CONT…..
• Can be using questionnaires or interviews
• Data is collected from the respondents
perspective and in his/her own words
• Does not force the respondents into any given
framework
• Identifies even rare events that might be missed
by other methods which only focus on common
and everyday events

51. DISADVANTAGES
• critical incidents often relay on memory, incidents
may even go unreported.
• The method has a built in bias towards incidents
that happened recently, since these are easier to
recall.

52. SUMMARY

53. BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Bhatia &Bhatia (2006)μA text book of educational
psychologyμ published by doaba house , Delhi , Page No:
561-569.
• Boring ,Langfeld ,weld ,μfoundations of psychologyμ
published by Asia publishing house, Bombay, Page no
560-588.
• Cliford .T. Morgon (1999) ´Introduction to
Psychologyμ7th edition ,published by Tata Mc Graco hill
Publishing company limited .Newdelhi. Page no 384-
390.
• Kamala Bhatia (2000) ´The principles and methods of
teaching μpublished by doaba house,Delhi, Page no 440.
• B.N. Panda (1999) ´Advanced educational Psychology
μpublished by Discovery publishing house,
Newdelhi.page.no 109