Objectives: The study examined the sustainability of plantation forestry in Mezam Division of the North West Region. Methodology and results: Respondents drawn from a cross-section of plantation owners in five (5) sub-divisions (i.e. Tubah, Bali, Bafut, Santa and Bemenda central) of Mezam Division. Fifty- (50) plantation owners selected through a system of random sampling. Data collected through the administered questionnaires were on social, economic, ecological, profitability, management strategies and constraints to plantation forestry in the study area. Structure questionnaires were instrument used for data collection. Analytical tools used were descriptive statistic including tables, means, and percentages to describe the socio-economic characteristic of respondents, while chi-square and Benefit Cost Ratio models were used to determined profitability and opinion of plantation owners respectively. The results reveal that majority of plantation owners were men 84.5% and widows make up 15.5% of the respondents. They all owned families. Benefit Cost Ratio B/C calculated was 0.7 (B/C . 1) this results implies that plantation business is not profitable compared to an alternative land use system, although they was a marginal profit of eight thousand five hundred francs 8500f ($ 17 USD) for the sale of one acre of plantation. Chi-square test of equal probability showed that they were no significant difference at 0.05% probability level for private plantation owners. The main constraints confronting plantation forestry business in the study area are access to finance, followed by wildfires, unfavorable government policies and finally bad road networks leading to their plantation. The Benefit Cost Ratio B/C calculated (B/C . 1) mean plantation business is not profitable compared to an alternative land use system, although they were marginal benefits. The study therefore recommend that private plantation be encourage to ensure less dependence on natural forest and to also mitigation climate change and through this jobs created and livelihood improved to the rural communities
Origin, non-monetary benefits and perspectives of domestication of Non-Timber...AI Publications
The objective of this study is to contribute towards the promotion of NTFPs from various origins by assessing their contribution in sustaining the livelihood of communities in Mifi Division and the domestication potential of some of the NTFP species. The study was carried out in the Mifi Division in the West Region of Cameroon. Respondent were drawn from a cross-section of exploiters and marketers. Data were collected through the administration of semi-structured questionnaires and interview guides as well as direct observations with actors including 65 wholesalers, 150 retailers and 120 households. Data analysis was carried out using Excel 2016 to generate tables and graphs, and ARCGIS 10.1 to generate the map of the areas of origin of NTFPs. Results revealed that 29 species are used in the Division but almost all (28 species) come from areas out of Mifi. Parts used for consumption consist of 36,84% fruits, 36.84% seeds, 10.52% leaves, 5.26% sap, 5.26% mushrooms and 5,26% rhizome while their use for medicinal purposes consist of 42,85% barks, 28.57% fruits, 14.28% seeds and 7.14% leaves and rhizome. In total, species are used as food (46.55%), medicine (36.2%), for construction and furniture (6.89%), packaging (6.89%) and cosmetics (3.44%). NTFPs are becoming increasingly rare, reason for the need of an effective domestication of the most used species. NTFPs mainly Garcinia kola and Tetrapleura tetraptera with higher assets and low constraints can potentially be domesticated in the Mifi Division in order to reduce overexploitation and promote sustainable management of NTFPs in the present context of climate change. There are many favorable conditions including, the need of small financial capital, the interest of inter-community groups and available workforce. Some constraints persist such as the lack of young plants, lack of technical assistance and financial support.
In the past, conservation effort has primarily focused on establishment of forest reserves for timber production, with minimal or no consideration to how these natural resources will help sustain or improve livelihoods of adjoining communities. This study examined the contribution of Aramoko forest reserve to the livelihoods of the adjoining communities in Ekiti State. One hundred and twenty pre-tested questionnaires were administered among the products collectors in the study area. Data collected were analysed and the result showed that 78.3 % of the respondents are married with 52.3 % of them male, while 50.8 % of the respondents aged between 51-70 years with 64.1 % having at least secondary education. Twenty-five (25) different products were collected by the respondents in the study area. These products include among others; timber with highest frequency of (120) followed by herbal plants (115), Archantina marginata (105), Thaumatococcus danielli (89), Bridelia ferruginea (70) and Irvingia garbonensis (65). The use of motor cycle accounted for 41.4 % of the respondents means of transportation, while 31.3 % of the respondents sell their product in bit at the village market. Picking, digging, plucking, cutting and uprooting were methods used for harvesting by the respondents while illegal felling (24 %) and indiscriminate bush burning (22.4 %) were the major conservation problem in the study area. Specifically, some of the products harvested are used for food, medicine, fuelwood, herbs and cultural purposes. The study recommends that research should be conducted into how these products can be artificially raised in the nursery for plantation establishment.
Pastoralists’ Perception of Resource-use Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestoc...BRNSS Publication Hub
One of the major but hidden challenges to livestock development and animal agriculture in the world
over is resource-use conflicts between crop farmers, pastoralists, and other land users. This is so because
during conflict situation, almost all human livelihood activities come to a standstill including livestock
farming. This study, therefore, sought to examine how conflicts involving different land users hinder
livestock production. Questionnaire and oral interview were used to obtain information from a total of
120 pastoralists in three selected states of Southeast (Abia, Enugu, and Imo). Data were analyzed using
percentages, mean, and standard deviation. The results showed that the mean age of pastoralists was 38,
and the mean household size was 10, mean herding experience was 18. The following were the causes
of resource-use conflicts – blocking of water sources by crop farmers with a mean (M) response of 3.30,
farming across cattle routes (M=2.95), burning of fields (M=3.30), and theft/stealing of cattle (M=3.40),
among others. The factors attracting the pastoralists to the study area were availability of special pasture
(M=2.37), availability of land for lease (M=2.52), and water availability (M=2.60) among other reasons.
Conflicts, therefore, affect livestock production in the following ways – unsafe field for grazing, poor
animal health, loss of human and animal lives, abandonment of herds for dear life, and many others
Origin, non-monetary benefits and perspectives of domestication of Non-Timber...AI Publications
The objective of this study is to contribute towards the promotion of NTFPs from various origins by assessing their contribution in sustaining the livelihood of communities in Mifi Division and the domestication potential of some of the NTFP species. The study was carried out in the Mifi Division in the West Region of Cameroon. Respondent were drawn from a cross-section of exploiters and marketers. Data were collected through the administration of semi-structured questionnaires and interview guides as well as direct observations with actors including 65 wholesalers, 150 retailers and 120 households. Data analysis was carried out using Excel 2016 to generate tables and graphs, and ARCGIS 10.1 to generate the map of the areas of origin of NTFPs. Results revealed that 29 species are used in the Division but almost all (28 species) come from areas out of Mifi. Parts used for consumption consist of 36,84% fruits, 36.84% seeds, 10.52% leaves, 5.26% sap, 5.26% mushrooms and 5,26% rhizome while their use for medicinal purposes consist of 42,85% barks, 28.57% fruits, 14.28% seeds and 7.14% leaves and rhizome. In total, species are used as food (46.55%), medicine (36.2%), for construction and furniture (6.89%), packaging (6.89%) and cosmetics (3.44%). NTFPs are becoming increasingly rare, reason for the need of an effective domestication of the most used species. NTFPs mainly Garcinia kola and Tetrapleura tetraptera with higher assets and low constraints can potentially be domesticated in the Mifi Division in order to reduce overexploitation and promote sustainable management of NTFPs in the present context of climate change. There are many favorable conditions including, the need of small financial capital, the interest of inter-community groups and available workforce. Some constraints persist such as the lack of young plants, lack of technical assistance and financial support.
In the past, conservation effort has primarily focused on establishment of forest reserves for timber production, with minimal or no consideration to how these natural resources will help sustain or improve livelihoods of adjoining communities. This study examined the contribution of Aramoko forest reserve to the livelihoods of the adjoining communities in Ekiti State. One hundred and twenty pre-tested questionnaires were administered among the products collectors in the study area. Data collected were analysed and the result showed that 78.3 % of the respondents are married with 52.3 % of them male, while 50.8 % of the respondents aged between 51-70 years with 64.1 % having at least secondary education. Twenty-five (25) different products were collected by the respondents in the study area. These products include among others; timber with highest frequency of (120) followed by herbal plants (115), Archantina marginata (105), Thaumatococcus danielli (89), Bridelia ferruginea (70) and Irvingia garbonensis (65). The use of motor cycle accounted for 41.4 % of the respondents means of transportation, while 31.3 % of the respondents sell their product in bit at the village market. Picking, digging, plucking, cutting and uprooting were methods used for harvesting by the respondents while illegal felling (24 %) and indiscriminate bush burning (22.4 %) were the major conservation problem in the study area. Specifically, some of the products harvested are used for food, medicine, fuelwood, herbs and cultural purposes. The study recommends that research should be conducted into how these products can be artificially raised in the nursery for plantation establishment.
Pastoralists’ Perception of Resource-use Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestoc...BRNSS Publication Hub
One of the major but hidden challenges to livestock development and animal agriculture in the world
over is resource-use conflicts between crop farmers, pastoralists, and other land users. This is so because
during conflict situation, almost all human livelihood activities come to a standstill including livestock
farming. This study, therefore, sought to examine how conflicts involving different land users hinder
livestock production. Questionnaire and oral interview were used to obtain information from a total of
120 pastoralists in three selected states of Southeast (Abia, Enugu, and Imo). Data were analyzed using
percentages, mean, and standard deviation. The results showed that the mean age of pastoralists was 38,
and the mean household size was 10, mean herding experience was 18. The following were the causes
of resource-use conflicts – blocking of water sources by crop farmers with a mean (M) response of 3.30,
farming across cattle routes (M=2.95), burning of fields (M=3.30), and theft/stealing of cattle (M=3.40),
among others. The factors attracting the pastoralists to the study area were availability of special pasture
(M=2.37), availability of land for lease (M=2.52), and water availability (M=2.60) among other reasons.
Conflicts, therefore, affect livestock production in the following ways – unsafe field for grazing, poor
animal health, loss of human and animal lives, abandonment of herds for dear life, and many others
Assessment of Indigenous Knowledge of Smallholder Farmers on Intercropping Pr...Premier Publishers
The study was conducted in three districts of West Hararghe Zone namely; Gemechis, Habro and Mieso districts. The objectives of the survey were: to identify and document indigenous knowledge of farmers towards intercropping, and identify constraints and opportunities of intercropping in the study area. A multi-stage sampling technique was used for the study. Total sample size of 149 households was interviewed and generated both qualitative and quantitative data. Focus Group Discussions were also formed and generated qualitative data. Descriptive statistics and an index score were used to analyze data. Majorly intercropped crops were Maize with Haricot Bean followed by Sorghum with Haricot Bean. The study indicated that drought, lack of knowledge about fertility management and lack of improved technology of intercropped crops were major constraints of intercropping legumes with other crops in the study area. However, declining of land holding size as a result of rise in population and early maturity of legume cops were major opportunities of intercropping in the study area. The study indicated that any research conducted on any intercropping practice in the area should incorporate farmers practice such as times of sowing and types of intercropped crops on intercropping trial, and awareness on soil fertility improvement should be promoted.
A Review on Effects of Deforestation on Landslide: Hill Areasijsrd.com
Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Deforestation includes conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. Since the industrial age, about half of world's original forests have been destroyed and millions of animals and living things have been endangered. Despite the improvements in education, information and general awareness of the importance of forests, deforestation has not reduced much, and there are still many more communities and individuals who still destroy forest lands for personal gains. Deforestation also provides stability to slope through which mass movement of rocks, debris could not occur. As the plant or tree roots provides some reinforcement and also remove groundwater. On hilly areas vegetation can stabilize steep slopes and if the cutting of trees continues it would result in a drastic change in the atmosphere or in the environment. In this paper there is summarization of cause of deforestation, deforestation causes, environment changes i.e. loss of biodiversity and how deforestation is related to landslide.
A Review of Global Experiences on using of Indigenous Knowledge in Rangelands...AI Publications
With the further advancement of rangeland science in recent decades, the importance of utilizing the indigenous knowledge is further highlighted. However, in many cases, there are some disagreements between executive managers and specialists of rangelands on the one hand, and local communities on the other hand, which is usually due to the importance of each side to certain aspects of effective parameters in pastures. In any case, more attention to local communities and indigenous knowledge in this matter is indisputable and should be used to integrate these two factors. In this paper, the role of utilizing the indigenous knowledge in the utilization of the rangelands and their management and its experiences in Iran and several parts of the world that are located on different continents has been studied, then the results as well as the effectiveness have been discussed for pasture in Iran, and in the end, some suggestions have been made for this purpose in Iran.
Conservation in an Amazonian tri national frontier livelihoods and forest cle...CIFOR-ICRAF
Amy E. Duchelle, A. Almeyda, N. Hoyos, M. Marsik, E. Broadbent, Karen A. Kainer
Presentation for the conference on
Taking stock of smallholders and community forestry
Montpellier France
March 24-26, 2010
The Limit of Chill Method as a Non-Lethal Deterrent in Mitigating Human Eleph...inventionjournals
Despite the popularity of chill method in mitigating human-elephant conflict (HEC) in crops fields of areas adjacent or within unfenced protected areas ecosystem in Africa countries, there are some challenges facing application of the method resulting to food insecurity. The study aimed at examining limitation of chill method in mitigating HEC using Western Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania as a case study. Data were collected by using Survey and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods. Collected data were analysed by using statistical package for social scientists (SPSS) software. The study revealed that human elephant conflicts were a big problem in two selected villages (namely Nyamburi and Bonchugu) for about 97%. In trying to solve the problem different mitigation measures were used by the local people to prevent elephants (Loxodontaafricanaafricana) from crops fields whereas chill method despite of its challenges seems to be effectives for about 83%. Major challenges which limit/hinder chill method in mitigating human elephant conflicts includes pepper types, availability and their effectiveness in producing chocking smell; weather conditions; and changing behaviour of elephants (Loxodontaafricanaafricana).
Ethnobotanic use Value Knowledge of Carapa oreophila in the Kilum Mountain Re...AI Publications
Carapa orephila, is a native species with versatile values traditionally exploited by the local population in Kilum Mountain forest area. This study focused on assessing local knowledge about the use of Carapa oreophila, Semi-structured ethnobotanical questionnaires were conducted among the ethnic groups Oku, Kom, Nso and the Borroro (Peul) in four localities of Kilum. Use values and Interviewee/resource assessment of stages of harvest among these ethnic groups and gender were evaluated. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used alongside with Stata to assess significant differences related to gender and ethnic groups. Results indicates that Carapa oreophila has a high use values as a multipurpose species. According to the consensus value for plant parts, the trunk (23.21%); branches (25.11%); fruits and seeds (9.84%); bark (9.84%); roots (9.84%); leaf (16.46%) and the gum (latex) 5.771%, were indicated with branches and trunk as the most significant. The use diversity values of Carapa oreophila showed a high proportion of domestic (UD=0.62) and therapeutic (UD=0.26) uses. The UD for these were higher for Oku and Kom (0.36 and 0.39) than Nso and the Borroro (0.16 and 0.07) ethnic groups. Comparative analysis between genders revealed that the highest UD for domestic uses (0.55) and therapeutic uses (0.24) were observed in men than women. Men of Oku and Kom had the highest level of knowledge regarding plant parts used, forms of use and the specific reasons for using Carapa oreophila. Given its multipurpose uses, we recommend the promotion and enhancement of Carapa oreophila through its domestication and seed oil production to provide significant socio-economic benefits to the local people. To this end, it is necessary to develop and implement strategies to support local communities to actively participate in the conservation and sustainable use of the species as part of the preservation of plant biodiversity lost.
Linking adaptation and mitigation to achieve climate compatible development i...CIFOR-ICRAF
Presented at the COP21 side event 'Forests, landscapes, climate & sustainable development – The evidence we need for the future we want' by Houria Djourdi on 3 December 2015.
Ecological-edaphic and Socio-economic drivers of on-farm tree farming enterpr...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
The biophysical-edaphic and socioeconomic factors do equally influence the on-farm tree farming in the smallholder farming systems. Naturally, neither of the factors do act in isolation, but they are interrelated. The study was carried out in Nsangi sub-county, Wakiso District, 2018. Using the stratified random sampling method based on landholding sizes, a sample of size of sixty households were selected and interviewed. The objectives of the study were to examine the influence of the bio-physical, edaphic and socio-cultural-economic factors onto the performance of the on-farm tree farming enterprise, and to evaluate the farmer's participation in on-farm tree farming activities. The results showed that both ecological-edaphic and socio-cultural-economic factors influence the performance of the tree volume, tree species diversity and tree stand density/ha. There is a negative correlation between size of landholding and farmer's interaction with the on-farm tree farming enterprises. Judging from the results of this study, there is a need for a policy review aimed at devising appropriate socio-cultural-economic and ecological-edaphic practices that promote on-farm tree farming programmes.
Pastoralists’ Perceptions towards Rangeland Degradation and Management in Don...AI Publications
Local land users often have different perceptions on the problems of rangeland degradation, compared to researchers and Government officials. This study was aimed at breaching this gap, by empirically exploring pastoralists’ perceptions regarding rangeland degradation in Donga-mantung. The pastoralists’ perceptions were studied through a descriptive statistics method. Focus group discussions, field observations and structured/semi-structured survey questionnaires, were used for data collection, where 200 pastoralists were targeted. The study covered seven Ardorates based on intensity of rangeland degradation (high, medium and less). The major findings indicate that, the main livestock production constraints were Insufficient and poor pasture (50.5%), cattle diseases (24.5%), Farmer/grazer conflicts (14.5%) and insufficient cattle drinking points (10.5%). Majority of respondents (59.5 %) confirmed that cattle population is declining in the study area. According to 59.5% of the respondents, the study area present range condition has deteriorated and become poor. The major causes for degradation were overgrazing, bush encroachment, soil erosion and limited care and attention paid to rangelands. The major socio-economic impacts of rangeland degradation were poverty (51.0%), food insecurity (35.5%) and conflicts (11.0%). The pastoralists of the study area traditionally practice rangeland management in different ways such as bush burning, bush clearing and herd mobility. A proportion of them (41.5%) have adopted the planting of improved pasture(s). Government and NGOs’ supports proved to be limiting in the study area. Nevertheless, the measures perceived by pastoralists to reduce degradation of their rangeland include; planting of improved pastures (40.5%), clearance of bushes that have encroach on rangelands (28.5%), establishing community awareness and community empowerment on rangeland degradation (17.0%), reducing the number of farmlands (9.5%) and reducing soil erosion (4.5%). This study showed the need for rangeland professionals, researchers, planners and other stakeholders to integrate the communities’ perceptions and existing indigenous ecological knowledge to ensure a sustainable rangeland management.
Assessment of Indigenous Knowledge of Smallholder Farmers on Intercropping Pr...Premier Publishers
The study was conducted in three districts of West Hararghe Zone namely; Gemechis, Habro and Mieso districts. The objectives of the survey were: to identify and document indigenous knowledge of farmers towards intercropping, and identify constraints and opportunities of intercropping in the study area. A multi-stage sampling technique was used for the study. Total sample size of 149 households was interviewed and generated both qualitative and quantitative data. Focus Group Discussions were also formed and generated qualitative data. Descriptive statistics and an index score were used to analyze data. Majorly intercropped crops were Maize with Haricot Bean followed by Sorghum with Haricot Bean. The study indicated that drought, lack of knowledge about fertility management and lack of improved technology of intercropped crops were major constraints of intercropping legumes with other crops in the study area. However, declining of land holding size as a result of rise in population and early maturity of legume cops were major opportunities of intercropping in the study area. The study indicated that any research conducted on any intercropping practice in the area should incorporate farmers practice such as times of sowing and types of intercropped crops on intercropping trial, and awareness on soil fertility improvement should be promoted.
A Review on Effects of Deforestation on Landslide: Hill Areasijsrd.com
Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Deforestation includes conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. Since the industrial age, about half of world's original forests have been destroyed and millions of animals and living things have been endangered. Despite the improvements in education, information and general awareness of the importance of forests, deforestation has not reduced much, and there are still many more communities and individuals who still destroy forest lands for personal gains. Deforestation also provides stability to slope through which mass movement of rocks, debris could not occur. As the plant or tree roots provides some reinforcement and also remove groundwater. On hilly areas vegetation can stabilize steep slopes and if the cutting of trees continues it would result in a drastic change in the atmosphere or in the environment. In this paper there is summarization of cause of deforestation, deforestation causes, environment changes i.e. loss of biodiversity and how deforestation is related to landslide.
A Review of Global Experiences on using of Indigenous Knowledge in Rangelands...AI Publications
With the further advancement of rangeland science in recent decades, the importance of utilizing the indigenous knowledge is further highlighted. However, in many cases, there are some disagreements between executive managers and specialists of rangelands on the one hand, and local communities on the other hand, which is usually due to the importance of each side to certain aspects of effective parameters in pastures. In any case, more attention to local communities and indigenous knowledge in this matter is indisputable and should be used to integrate these two factors. In this paper, the role of utilizing the indigenous knowledge in the utilization of the rangelands and their management and its experiences in Iran and several parts of the world that are located on different continents has been studied, then the results as well as the effectiveness have been discussed for pasture in Iran, and in the end, some suggestions have been made for this purpose in Iran.
Conservation in an Amazonian tri national frontier livelihoods and forest cle...CIFOR-ICRAF
Amy E. Duchelle, A. Almeyda, N. Hoyos, M. Marsik, E. Broadbent, Karen A. Kainer
Presentation for the conference on
Taking stock of smallholders and community forestry
Montpellier France
March 24-26, 2010
The Limit of Chill Method as a Non-Lethal Deterrent in Mitigating Human Eleph...inventionjournals
Despite the popularity of chill method in mitigating human-elephant conflict (HEC) in crops fields of areas adjacent or within unfenced protected areas ecosystem in Africa countries, there are some challenges facing application of the method resulting to food insecurity. The study aimed at examining limitation of chill method in mitigating HEC using Western Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania as a case study. Data were collected by using Survey and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods. Collected data were analysed by using statistical package for social scientists (SPSS) software. The study revealed that human elephant conflicts were a big problem in two selected villages (namely Nyamburi and Bonchugu) for about 97%. In trying to solve the problem different mitigation measures were used by the local people to prevent elephants (Loxodontaafricanaafricana) from crops fields whereas chill method despite of its challenges seems to be effectives for about 83%. Major challenges which limit/hinder chill method in mitigating human elephant conflicts includes pepper types, availability and their effectiveness in producing chocking smell; weather conditions; and changing behaviour of elephants (Loxodontaafricanaafricana).
Ethnobotanic use Value Knowledge of Carapa oreophila in the Kilum Mountain Re...AI Publications
Carapa orephila, is a native species with versatile values traditionally exploited by the local population in Kilum Mountain forest area. This study focused on assessing local knowledge about the use of Carapa oreophila, Semi-structured ethnobotanical questionnaires were conducted among the ethnic groups Oku, Kom, Nso and the Borroro (Peul) in four localities of Kilum. Use values and Interviewee/resource assessment of stages of harvest among these ethnic groups and gender were evaluated. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used alongside with Stata to assess significant differences related to gender and ethnic groups. Results indicates that Carapa oreophila has a high use values as a multipurpose species. According to the consensus value for plant parts, the trunk (23.21%); branches (25.11%); fruits and seeds (9.84%); bark (9.84%); roots (9.84%); leaf (16.46%) and the gum (latex) 5.771%, were indicated with branches and trunk as the most significant. The use diversity values of Carapa oreophila showed a high proportion of domestic (UD=0.62) and therapeutic (UD=0.26) uses. The UD for these were higher for Oku and Kom (0.36 and 0.39) than Nso and the Borroro (0.16 and 0.07) ethnic groups. Comparative analysis between genders revealed that the highest UD for domestic uses (0.55) and therapeutic uses (0.24) were observed in men than women. Men of Oku and Kom had the highest level of knowledge regarding plant parts used, forms of use and the specific reasons for using Carapa oreophila. Given its multipurpose uses, we recommend the promotion and enhancement of Carapa oreophila through its domestication and seed oil production to provide significant socio-economic benefits to the local people. To this end, it is necessary to develop and implement strategies to support local communities to actively participate in the conservation and sustainable use of the species as part of the preservation of plant biodiversity lost.
Linking adaptation and mitigation to achieve climate compatible development i...CIFOR-ICRAF
Presented at the COP21 side event 'Forests, landscapes, climate & sustainable development – The evidence we need for the future we want' by Houria Djourdi on 3 December 2015.
Ecological-edaphic and Socio-economic drivers of on-farm tree farming enterpr...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
The biophysical-edaphic and socioeconomic factors do equally influence the on-farm tree farming in the smallholder farming systems. Naturally, neither of the factors do act in isolation, but they are interrelated. The study was carried out in Nsangi sub-county, Wakiso District, 2018. Using the stratified random sampling method based on landholding sizes, a sample of size of sixty households were selected and interviewed. The objectives of the study were to examine the influence of the bio-physical, edaphic and socio-cultural-economic factors onto the performance of the on-farm tree farming enterprise, and to evaluate the farmer's participation in on-farm tree farming activities. The results showed that both ecological-edaphic and socio-cultural-economic factors influence the performance of the tree volume, tree species diversity and tree stand density/ha. There is a negative correlation between size of landholding and farmer's interaction with the on-farm tree farming enterprises. Judging from the results of this study, there is a need for a policy review aimed at devising appropriate socio-cultural-economic and ecological-edaphic practices that promote on-farm tree farming programmes.
Pastoralists’ Perceptions towards Rangeland Degradation and Management in Don...AI Publications
Local land users often have different perceptions on the problems of rangeland degradation, compared to researchers and Government officials. This study was aimed at breaching this gap, by empirically exploring pastoralists’ perceptions regarding rangeland degradation in Donga-mantung. The pastoralists’ perceptions were studied through a descriptive statistics method. Focus group discussions, field observations and structured/semi-structured survey questionnaires, were used for data collection, where 200 pastoralists were targeted. The study covered seven Ardorates based on intensity of rangeland degradation (high, medium and less). The major findings indicate that, the main livestock production constraints were Insufficient and poor pasture (50.5%), cattle diseases (24.5%), Farmer/grazer conflicts (14.5%) and insufficient cattle drinking points (10.5%). Majority of respondents (59.5 %) confirmed that cattle population is declining in the study area. According to 59.5% of the respondents, the study area present range condition has deteriorated and become poor. The major causes for degradation were overgrazing, bush encroachment, soil erosion and limited care and attention paid to rangelands. The major socio-economic impacts of rangeland degradation were poverty (51.0%), food insecurity (35.5%) and conflicts (11.0%). The pastoralists of the study area traditionally practice rangeland management in different ways such as bush burning, bush clearing and herd mobility. A proportion of them (41.5%) have adopted the planting of improved pasture(s). Government and NGOs’ supports proved to be limiting in the study area. Nevertheless, the measures perceived by pastoralists to reduce degradation of their rangeland include; planting of improved pastures (40.5%), clearance of bushes that have encroach on rangelands (28.5%), establishing community awareness and community empowerment on rangeland degradation (17.0%), reducing the number of farmlands (9.5%) and reducing soil erosion (4.5%). This study showed the need for rangeland professionals, researchers, planners and other stakeholders to integrate the communities’ perceptions and existing indigenous ecological knowledge to ensure a sustainable rangeland management.
Use of Raffias’ species (Raphia spp.) and its impact on socioeconomic charact...Open Access Research Paper
Raffias’ species are used in handcrafts, constructions, food processing etc. But in Benin, any quantitative ethnobotanical study was not evaluated for their use and socioeconomic impact of uses on average income. This study investigated the importance of use of raffias’ species and the impact of socioeconomic characteristics of informants on the household income. Ethnobotany quantitative approach was used and data on use, products prices and the quantity sold were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire administered during an interview. The result showed that raffias’ species in Benin are used principally for craft (CI = 1.41 for R. hookeri and 1.68 for R. sudanica), but R. hookeri was most important for people in Guinean zone than those in soudanian and soudano-guinean zones. The frequently uses were the beds, mats, baskets and roofs. The most part of the plant used is the rachis for both species and the less used is the nut. Education level, gender and main activities were socioeconomic variable which influenced the annual income from exploitation of raffias species. The uneducated, men and farmers took more income from raffias’ species than others. Also, the development level of areas where the species are found, influence the income from their exploitations. To evaluate better the contribution of raffias’ species to regional and national gross product, it will be necessary to study the value chain of the main products, but also take into account the informant categories defined in this study regarding operators.
Rangeland Degradation and Rehabilitation: Indigenous Ecological Knowledge and...AI Publications
Pastoralists’ perceptions and indigenous ecological knowledge of vegetation changes are often ignored despite the debate about their role in rangeland management. Yet, pastoralists are known to have extensive ecological knowledge which could complement scientific knowledge and contribute to improved understanding and sustainable management of savanna Ecosystems. This study was aimed at exploring pastoralists’ perceptions regarding rangeland degradation in the Adamawa highland plateau. More specifically, it was geared to examine their awareness of rangeland degradation, the current status/condition of the rangelands, the drivers and major root causes of degradation, negative consequences, existing management practices, and a methodological framework to make these measures more resilient. The study applied a descriptive statistics method. Focus group discussions, field observations and structured/semi-structured survey questionnaires, were used for data collection, where 240 pastoralists were targeted. The study covered 4 sub-divisions within Faro & Deo District of the plateau based on the intensity of degradation (high, medium and less). The major findings indicate that, the main livelihood activity is cattle rearing and crop cultivation (86.43%) with a certain degree of sedentarization. The major livestock production constraint proved to be insufficient and poor pasture available for cattle (65.71%). A great majority (93.6%) also confirmed that the present rangeland state/condition has become poor and non-conducive for cattle production. This is clearly interpreted in the drastic drop of the ‘cheptel’ (average holdings) and a decline in the quality of pastoral resources/outputs offered to the communities. The major root causes of degradation were overgrazing, bush encroachment, uncontrolled bush fires, soil erosion, population pressure and limited care/attention paid to rangelands. The major socio-economic consequences were poverty, food insecurity, conflicts, loss of cultural heritage, rural exodus and high crime waves. Through their indigenous ecological knowledge pastoralists conserve their rangelands through: mechanical and chemical fight against bush encroachment (Bush clearing and use of selective herbicide respectively), seasonal herd mobility/transhumance, use of paddocking systems, destocking of herds, adoption of improved pastures, and improvement on pastoral hydraulics. Government and NGOs’ supports to rangeland management, proved to be limited in the study area. The degradation of rangelands in the study area is progressing at an alarming rate which gives the impression of difficulty to restore it in the future if proper measures are not taken by stakeholders.
Evaluation of land use practice and its future consequence on dilla zuria wor...zinabu wolde
The study reviewed Land use practices in Gedeo Zone Dilla Zuria woreda to assess its role and achievements in ensuring good food security since 2014 in which the people of Gedeo were being practice on. The objectives were to (1) identify the land Use practice that have been used over time; (2) identify the problem of current land Use practice in the area (3) identify the challenges of the practice in the soil; (4) determine the extent of use of land use practice from historical approaches in maintaining good service and (5) make recommendations for further improvement of land use practice. Primary sources, Published and unpublished secondary sources revealed that several agricultural approach were being undertaken in order to make clear land use practice of the area. One of the basic approaches undertaken today was Agroforestry practice, which culturally tied with Nation of Gedeo. Land use practice dealt with challenges of previous and current approaches of land use practice. Aspects of challenges to effective Land use practice in area were administrative or management, farmer awareness, and in general, attitudinal change of farmers in the area. Natural resource management such as integrated watershed management, soil and water conservation practice, consequence of improper land use practice are discussed and recommended for further improvement of land use practice in the study area.
2 ijfaf jan-2018-2-participatory mapping as a toolAI Publications
This study was carried out with the aim to contribute to the sustainable management of natural resources through the production of participative maps within forest communities in the Nguti subdivision. Specifically this was to illustrate the existing occupation and traditional tenure of forest lands and identify where conflicts of use or rights already exist or could arise both for national government planning and private investors. Data was collected through focus group discussions, household interview and field data collection with the local population through the use of GPS tablets. Results show that 90.7% of the population have no idea on this participative mapping process; however, 35.19% of the population are very interested in this mapping process as it could serve as a tool to enhance land security while 28% of respondents think it could serve as a tool for boundary clarification. Also 18% consider participative mapping an interesting tool to get good knowledge of an area and plan land use. However, forest is principally used here for farming, hunting and gathering with an average household farm size of 0.35ha per year with just 30% of the non-Timber forest products in this area being exploited. The study also revealed that, conflicts of use and right exist due to government affectations, unclear boundaries and the creation of chiefdoms. Participative mapping has proven to be the better tool for decision making as other tools such as satellite images have caused overlaps in state affectations.
The participatory management plan is a technical, legal and social device that joins the objectives of biodiversity conservation and the socio-economic needs of local populations. This research work aims to evaluate the impact of Wari-Maro classified forest management plan implementation on the structure and specific diversity of vegetation types. The methodological approach followed is based on the comparison of the dendrometric parameters and plant diversity parameters before and after the management plan implementation. The phytosociological and dendrometric database before the management plan was compiled with data from the forest inventory conducted by PAMF project in 2004 and others work. The forest and phytosociological inventories were carried out on the plots (70) from the forest inventory of PAMF project (2004) following the same methodological principles. The Shannon diversity index decreased from 3.35 ± 0.57 bits in 2004 to 1.98 ± 0.73 bits in 2014. The average density of dbh trees ≥ 10 cm decreased from 740.37 ± 269 , 86 stems / ha in 2004 to 184 ± 100 stems / ha in 2014. The results of the 5% sample matched t-test reveal a non-significant difference between the Shannon Diversity Index of 2004 and of 2014. On the other hand, the results of the sample t-test matched at the 5% threshold, reveal a significant difference between the average density value of 2004 and 2014 for all vegetation types except shrub savannas, fields and fallows. Most of the plant species found before the management plan are still present despite the decreased in individuals’ density.
Due to availability of internet and evolution of embedded devices, Internet of things can be useful to contribute in energy domain. The Internet of Things (IoT) will deliver a smarter grid to enable more information and connectivity throughout the infrastructure and to homes. Through the IoT, consumers, manufacturers and utility providers will come across new ways to manage devices and ultimately conserve resources and save money by using smart meters, home gateways, smart plugs and connected appliances. The future smart home, various devices will be able to measure and share their energy consumption, and actively participate in house-wide or building wide energy management systems. This paper discusses the different approaches being taken worldwide to connect the smart grid. Full system solutions can be developed by combining hardware and software to address some of the challenges in building a smarter and more connected smart grid.
A Survey Report on : Security & Challenges in Internet of Thingsijsrd.com
In the era of computing technology, Internet of Things (IoT) devices are now popular in each and every domains like e-governance, e-Health, e-Home, e-Commerce, and e-Trafficking etc. Iot is spreading from small to large applications in all fields like Smart Cities, Smart Grids, Smart Transportation. As on one side IoT provide facilities and services for the society. On the other hand, IoT security is also a crucial issues.IoT security is an area which totally concerned for giving security to connected devices and networks in the IoT .As, IoT is vast area with usability, performance, security, and reliability as a major challenges in it. The growth of the IoT is exponentially increases as driven by market pressures, which proportionally increases the security threats involved in IoT The relationship between the security and billions of devices connecting to the Internet cannot be described with existing mathematical methods. In this paper, we explore the opportunities possible in the IoT with security threats and challenges associated with it.
In today’s emerging world of Internet, each and every thing is supposed to be in connected mode with the help of billions of smart devices. By connecting all the devises used in our day to day life, make our life trouble less and easy. We are incorporated in a world where we are used to have smart phones, smart cars, smart gadgets, smart homes and smart cities. Different institutes and researchers are working for creating a smart world for us but real question which we need to emphasis on is how to make dumb devises talk with uncommon hardware and communication technology. For the same what kind of mechanism to use with various protocols and less human interaction. The purpose is to provide the key area for application of IoT and a platform on which various devices having different mechanism and protocols can communicate with an integrated architecture.
Study on Issues in Managing and Protecting Data of IOTijsrd.com
This paper discusses variety of issues for preserving and managing data produced by IoT. Every second large amount of data are added or updated in the IoT databases across the heterogeneous environment. While managing the data each phase of data processing for IoT data is exigent like storing data, querying, indexing, transaction management and failure handling. We also refer to the problem of data integration and protection as data requires to be fit in single layout and travel securely as they arrive in the pool from diversified sources in different structure. Finally, we confer a standardized pathway to manage and to defend data in consistent manner.
Interactive Technologies for Improving Quality of Education to Build Collabor...ijsrd.com
Today with advancement in Information Communication Technology (ICT) the way the education is being delivered is seeing a paradigm shift from boring classroom lectures to interactive applications such as 2-D and 3-D learning content, animations, live videos, response systems, interactive panels, education games, virtual laboratories and collaborative research (data gathering and analysis) etc. Engineering is emerging with more innovative solutions in the field of education and bringing out their innovative products to improve education delivery. The academic institutes which were once hesitant to use such technology are now looking forward to such innovations. They are adopting the new ways as they are realizing the vast benefits of using such methods and technology. The benefits are better comprehensibility, improved learning efficiency of students, and access to vast knowledge resources, geographical reach, quick feedback, accountability and quality research. This paper focuses on how engineering can leverage the latest technology and build a collaborative learning environment which can then be integrated with the national e-learning grid.
Internet of Things - Paradigm Shift of Future Internet Application for Specia...ijsrd.com
In the world more than 15% people are living with disability that also include children below age of 10 years. Due to lack of independent support services specially abled (handicap) people overly rely on other people for their basic needs, that excludes them from being financially and socially active. The Internet of Things (IoT) can give support system and a better quality of life as well as participation in routine and day to day life. For this purpose, the future solutions for current problems has been introduced in this paper. Daunting challenges have been considered as future research and glimpse of the IoT for specially abled person is given in the paper.
A Study of the Adverse Effects of IoT on Student's Lifeijsrd.com
Internet of things (IoT) is the most powerful invention and if used in the positive direction, internet can prove to be very productive. But, now a days, due to the social networking sites such as Face book, WhatsApp, twitter, hike etc. internet is producing adverse effects on the student life, especially those students studying at college Level. As it is rightly said, something which has some positive effects also has some of the negative effects on the other hand. In this article, we are discussing some adverse effects of IoT on student’s life.
Pedagogy for Effective use of ICT in English Language Learningijsrd.com
The use of information and communications technology (ICT) in education is a relatively new phenomenon and it has been the educational researchers' focus of attention for more than two decades. Educators and researchers examine the challenges of using ICT and think of new ways to integrate ICT into the curriculum. However, there are some barriers for the teachers that prevent them to use ICT in the classroom and develop supporting materials through ICT. The purpose of this study is to examine the high school English teachers’ perceptions of the factors discouraging teachers to use ICT in the classroom.
In recent years usage of private vehicles create urban traffic more and more crowded. As result traffic becomes one of the important problems in big cities in all over the world. Some of the traffic concerns are traffic jam and accidents which have caused a huge waste of time, more fuel consumption and more pollution. Time is very important parameter in routine life. The main problem faced by the people is real time routing. Our solution Virtual Eye will provide the current updates as in the real time scenario of the specific route. This research paper presents smart traffic navigation system, based on Internet of Things, which is featured by low cost, high compatibility, easy to upgrade, to replace traditional traffic management system and the proposed system can improve road traffic tremendously.
Ontological Model of Educational Programs in Computer Science (Bachelor and M...ijsrd.com
In this work there is illustrated an ontological model of educational programs in computer science for bachelor and master degrees in Computer science and for master educational program “Computer science as second competence†by Tempus project PROMIS.
Understanding IoT Management for Smart Refrigeratorijsrd.com
Lately the concept of Internet of Things (IoT) is being more elaborated and devices and databases are proposed thereby to meet the need of an Internet of Things scenario. IoT is being considered to be an integral part of smart house where devices will be connected to each other and also react upon certain environmental input. This will eventually include the home refrigerator, air conditioner, lights, heater and such other home appliances. Therefore, we focus our research on the database part for such an IoT’ fridge which we called as smart Fridge. We describe the potentials achievable through a database for an IoT refrigerator to manage the refrigerator food and also aid the creation of a monthly budget of the house for a family. The paper aims at the data management issue based on a proposed design for an intelligent refrigerator leveraging the sensor technology and the wireless communication technology. The refrigerator which identifies products by reading the barcodes or RFID tags is proposed to order the required products by connecting to the Internet. Thus the goal of this paper is to minimize human interaction to maintain the daily life events.
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF DOUBLE WISHBONE SUSPENSION SYSTEM USING FINITE ELEMENT...ijsrd.com
Double wishbone designs allow the engineer to carefully control the motion of the wheel throughout suspension travel. 3-D model of the Lower Wishbone Arm is prepared by using CAD software for modal and stress analysis. The forces and moments are used as the boundary conditions for finite element model of the wishbone arm. By using these boundary conditions static analysis is carried out. Then making the load as a function of time; quasi-static analysis of the wishbone arm is carried out. A finite element based optimization is used to optimize the design of lower wishbone arm. Topology optimization and material optimization techniques are used to optimize lower wishbone arm design.
A Review: Microwave Energy for materials processingijsrd.com
Microwave energy is a latest largest growing technique for material processing. This paper presents a review of microwave technologies used for material processing and its use for industrial applications. Advantages in using microwave energy for processing material include rapid heating, high heating efficiency, heating uniformity and clean energy. The microwave heating has various characteristics and due to which it has been become popular for heating low temperature applications to high temperature applications. In recent years this novel technique has been successfully utilized for the processing of metallic materials. Many researchers have reported microwave energy for sintering, joining and cladding of metallic materials. The aim of this paper is to show the use of microwave energy not only for non-metallic materials but also the metallic materials. The ability to process metals with microwave could assist in the manufacturing of high performance metal parts desired in many industries, for example in automotive and aeronautical industries.
Web Usage Mining: A Survey on User's Navigation Pattern from Web Logsijsrd.com
With an expontial growth of World Wide Web, there are so many information overloaded and it became hard to find out data according to need. Web usage mining is a part of web mining, which deal with automatic discovery of user navigation pattern from web log. This paper presents an overview of web mining and also provide navigation pattern from classification and clustering algorithm for web usage mining. Web usage mining contain three important task namely data preprocessing, pattern discovery and pattern analysis based on discovered pattern. And also contain the comparative study of web mining techniques.
APPLICATION OF STATCOM to IMPROVED DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE OF POWER SYSTEMijsrd.com
Application of FACTS controller called Static Synchronous Compensator STATCOM to improve the performance of power grid with Wind Farms is investigated .The essential feature of the STATCOM is that it has the ability to absorb or inject fastly the reactive power with power grid . Therefore the voltage regulation of the power grid with STATCOM FACTS device is achieved. Moreover restoring the stability of the power system having wind farm after occurring severe disturbance such as faults or wind farm mechanical power variation is obtained with STATCOM controller . The dynamic model of the power system having wind farm controlled by proposed STATCOM is developed . To validate the powerful of the STATCOM FACTS controller, the studied power system is simulated and subjected to different severe disturbances. The results prove the effectiveness of the proposed STATCOM controller in terms of fast damping the power system oscillations and restoring the power system stability.
Making model of dual axis solar tracking with Maximum Power Point Trackingijsrd.com
Now a days solar harvesting is more popular. As the popularity become higher the material quality and solar tracking methods are more improved. There are several factors affecting the solar system. Major influence on solar cell, intensity of source radiation and storage techniques The materials used in solar cell manufacturing limit the efficiency of solar cell. This makes it particularly difficult to make considerable improvements in the performance of the cell, and hence restricts the efficiency of the overall collection process. Therefore, the most attainable maximum power point tracking method of improving the performance of solar power collection is to increase the mean intensity of radiation received from the source used. The purposed of tracking system controls elevation and orientation angles of solar panels such that the panels always maintain perpendicular to the sunlight. The measured variables of our automatic system were compared with those of a fixed angle PV system. As a result of the experiment, the voltage generated by the proposed tracking system has an overall of about 28.11% more than the fixed angle PV system. There are three major approaches for maximizing power extraction in medium and large scale systems. They are sun tracking, maximum power point (MPP) tracking or both.
A REVIEW PAPER ON PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION TEST OF 4 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE USI...ijsrd.com
In day today's relevance, it is mandatory to device the usage of diesel in an economic way. In present scenario, the very low combustion efficiency of CI engine leads to poor performance of engine and produces emission due to incomplete combustion. Study of research papers is focused on the improvement in efficiency of the engine and reduction in emissions by adding ethanol in a diesel with different blends like 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30% by volume. The performance and emission characteristics of the engine are tested observed using blended fuels and comparative assessment is done with the performance and emission characteristics of engine using pure diesel.
Study and Review on Various Current Comparatorsijsrd.com
This paper presents study and review on various current comparators. It also describes low voltage current comparator using flipped voltage follower (FVF) to obtain the single supply voltage. This circuit has short propagation delay and occupies a small chip area as compare to other current comparators. The results of this circuit has obtained using PSpice simulator for 0.18 μm CMOS technology and a comparison has been performed with its non FVF counterpart to contrast its effectiveness, simplicity, compactness and low power consumption.
Reducing Silicon Real Estate and Switching Activity Using Low Power Test Patt...ijsrd.com
Power dissipation is a challenging problem for today's system-on-chip design and test. This paper presents a novel architecture which generates the test patterns with reduced switching activities; it has the advantage of low test power and low hardware overhead. The proposed LP-TPG (test pattern generator) structure consists of modified low power linear feedback shift register (LP-LFSR), m-bit counter, gray counter, NOR-gate structure and XOR-array. The seed generated from LP-LFSR is EXCLUSIVE-OR ed with the data generated from gray code generator. The XOR result of the sequence is single input changing (SIC) sequence, in turn reduces the switching activity and so power dissipation will be very less. The proposed architecture is simulated using Modelsim and synthesized using Xilinx ISE9.2.The Xilinx chip scope tool will be used to test the logic running on FPGA.
Defending Reactive Jammers in WSN using a Trigger Identification Service.ijsrd.com
In the last decade, the greatest threat to the wireless sensor network has been Reactive Jamming Attack because it is difficult to be disclosed and defend as well as due to its mass destruction to legitimate sensor communications. As discussed above about the Reactive Jammers Nodes, a new scheme to deactivate them efficiently is by identifying all trigger nodes, where transmissions invoke the jammer nodes, which has been proposed and developed. Due to this identification mechanism, many existing reactive jamming defending schemes can be benefited. This Trigger Identification can also work as an application layer .In this paper, on one side we provide the several optimization problems to provide complete trigger identification service framework for unreliable wireless sensor networks and on the other side we also provide an improved algorithm with regard to two sophisticated jamming models, in order to enhance its robustness for various network scenarios.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
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Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
When the automobile is sold to the customer, stock will be reduced automatically. When a new purchase is made, stock will be increased automatically. While selecting automobiles for sale, the proposed software will automatically check for total number of available stock of that particular item, if the total stock of that particular item is less than 5, software will notify the user to purchase the particular item.
Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
Quality defects in TMT Bars, Possible causes and Potential Solutions.PrashantGoswami42
Maintaining high-quality standards in the production of TMT bars is crucial for ensuring structural integrity in construction. Addressing common defects through careful monitoring, standardized processes, and advanced technology can significantly improve the quality of TMT bars. Continuous training and adherence to quality control measures will also play a pivotal role in minimizing these defects.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Democratizing Fuzzing at Scale by Abhishek Aryaabh.arya
Presented at NUS: Fuzzing and Software Security Summer School 2024
This keynote talks about the democratization of fuzzing at scale, highlighting the collaboration between open source communities, academia, and industry to advance the field of fuzzing. It delves into the history of fuzzing, the development of scalable fuzzing platforms, and the empowerment of community-driven research. The talk will further discuss recent advancements leveraging AI/ML and offer insights into the future evolution of the fuzzing landscape.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
COLLEGE BUS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROJECT REPORT.pdfKamal Acharya
The College Bus Management system is completely developed by Visual Basic .NET Version. The application is connect with most secured database language MS SQL Server. The application is develop by using best combination of front-end and back-end languages. The application is totally design like flat user interface. This flat user interface is more attractive user interface in 2017. The application is gives more important to the system functionality. The application is to manage the student’s details, driver’s details, bus details, bus route details, bus fees details and more. The application has only one unit for admin. The admin can manage the entire application. The admin can login into the application by using username and password of the admin. The application is develop for big and small colleges. It is more user friendly for non-computer person. Even they can easily learn how to manage the application within hours. The application is more secure by the admin. The system will give an effective output for the VB.Net and SQL Server given as input to the system. The compiled java program given as input to the system, after scanning the program will generate different reports. The application generates the report for users. The admin can view and download the report of the data. The application deliver the excel format reports. Because, excel formatted reports is very easy to understand the income and expense of the college bus. This application is mainly develop for windows operating system users. In 2017, 73% of people enterprises are using windows operating system. So the application will easily install for all the windows operating system users. The application-developed size is very low. The application consumes very low space in disk. Therefore, the user can allocate very minimum local disk space for this application.
Assessing the sustainability of forest plantations in Mezam Division of the North West Region, Cameroon
1. IJSRD - International Journal for Scientific Research & Development| Vol. 1, Issue 4, 2013 | ISSN (online): 2321-0613
All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com 926
Abstract:
Objectives: The study examined the sustainability of
plantation forestry in Mezam Division of the North West
Region.
Methodology and results: Respondents drawn from a cross-
section of plantation owners in five (5) sub-divisions (i.e.
Tubah, Bali, Bafut, Santa and Bemenda central) of Mezam
Division. Fifty- (50) plantation owners selected through a
system of random sampling. Data collected through the
administered questionnaires were on social, economic,
ecological, profitability, management strategies and
constraints to plantation forestry in the study area. Structure
questionnaires were instrument used for data collection.
Analytical tools used were descriptive statistic including
tables, means, and percentages to describe the socio-
economic characteristic of respondents, while chi-square
and Benefit Cost Ratio models were used to determined
profitability and opinion of plantation owners respectively.
The results reveal that majority of plantation owners were
men 84.5% and widows make up 15.5% of the respondents.
They all owned families. Benefit Cost Ratio B/C calculated
was 0.7 (B/C ˂ 1) this results implies that plantation
business is not profitable compared to an alternative land
use system, although they was a marginal profit of eight
thousand five hundred francs 8500f ($ 17 USD) for the sale
of one acre of plantation. Chi-square test of equal
probability showed that they were no significant difference
at 0.05% probability level for private plantation owners. The
main constraints confronting plantation forestry business in
the study area are access to finance, followed by wildfires,
unfavorable government policies and finally bad road
networks leading to their plantation. The Benefit Cost Ratio
B/C calculated (B/C ˂ 1) mean plantation business is not
profitable compared to an alternative land use system,
although they were marginal benefits. The study therefore
recommend that private plantation be encourage to ensure
less dependence on natural forest and to also mitigation
climate change and through this jobs created and livelihood
improved to the rural communities
Key words: Management, Sustainability, Benefits and
Priority species
I. INTRODUCTION
The forests are home to 350 million people and about 60
million indigenous people are almost wholly dependent on
forests. More than 1.6 billion people depend to varying
degrees on forests for their livelihoods, such as for fuel
wood, medicinal plants and forest foods (World Bank,
2004). Over 90 per cent of those living on less, than $1per
day depend on forests to some extent for their livelihood.
Forest ecosystems provide many and varied benefits from
their natural resources and processes (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Wood energy accounts for
around 9 per cent of energy consumed worldwide, and up to
80 percent in some developing countries. Bush meat can
account for up to 85 per cent of the protein intake of people
living in or near forests (UNDP, UNDESA and World
Energy Council, 2003).
In addition to the use of forests for subsistence food and
fuel, community enterprises that generate income from
trading sustainably harvested forest resources are on the
increase in many countries. Global employment in the
formal forestry sector is estimated to be around 13 million
people (Sunderlin et al, 2008), and it has been estimated that
for every one job in the formal sector there are another one
or two jobs in the informal sector – up to 1 per cent of the
global labour force (Lebedys, 2004). Around 3.5 billion
cubic meters of wood are harvested each year from the
world’s forests and global trade in primary wood products
was worth $204 billion in 2006 (FAO, 2006). Forests are
also an important supplier of other products including latex,
handicrafts and medicines. Leisure time in forests has
increased with economic development and urban living.
This has led to a growth in social forest services such as
recreation, sport and ecotourism (Millennium and
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). People value forests
according to cultural, spiritual and historical factors. These
amenities can range from intrinsic and aesthetic value to
more geographically specific values relating to the
traditional homelands of indigenous people. Forests provide
a range of ecological services including flood protection,
plant pollination, soil formation and erosion control. Forests
stabilize their landscapes and offer protection from extreme
events such as storms, floods and droughts forecast to
become increasingly frequent and intense under future
climate change (Macqueen and Vermeulen, 2006).
The total area covered by plantation in Africa as of year
2000 is about eight (8) million hectare with an annual
planting rate of 194000ha (FAO, 2001a). Although the
plantation area in Sub-Saharan Africa more than doubled
during the last decade, the overall rate of increase is slow,
particularly compared to the rapid global expansion of
plantations (FAO, 2001a). Despite the rapid expansion of
plantation forestry, there were also failures. Valuable
plantations were neglect or abandoned in some countries
(e.g. Cameroon, Gabon, Liberia and DR Congo) due to
budget cutbacks and inability to maintain an expansive
resource (Evans, 1992) and to political instability.
Eucalyptus is the most widely planted genus covering
22.4% of all planted area, followed by Pinus (20.5%),
Hevea (7.1%), Acacia (4.3%) and Tectona (2.6%). The area
covered by other broadleaved and other conifers is
Assessing the sustainability of forest plantations in Mezam Division
of the North West Region, Cameroon
Shidiki A. A.1
Marie A. L.2
1, 2
Department of Forestry, University of Dschang, Cameroon B.P 66 Dschang
2. Assessing the sustainability of forest plantations in Mezam Division of the North West Region, Cameroon
(IJSRD/Vol. 1/Issue4/2013/0028)
All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com 927
respectively 11.2% and 7.2%, while unspecified
species cover 24.7%. Overall, the great majority of planted
trees are exotic species chosen for their capability to grow
rapidly to produce wood of desired quality (Tiarks et al.,
1998). The study conducted in Mezam Division of the North
West Region, Cameroon. Mezam division divided into five
(5) sub-divisions, which are (Tubah, Bali, Bafut, Santa and
Bemenda central). The objectives of the study were to
identify and priority species, to survey and characterise the
forest plantations and owners management strategies,
identify the socio-economic and ecological factors driving
the business and identify the constraints to sustainable
management of forest plantations
II. METHODOLOGY
The study carried out in Mezam Division with a population
of 800,000 inhabitants and a surface area of 17500Km2
(Census, 2012). The area lies within latitude 5° 40’ and 7° N
and longitude 9°45 and 11°10’E at an altitude of 1614M
above sea level (wekimedia, 2012). Data collected through
the administration of fifty copies of well-structured
questionnaire, which was careful, designed with view for
providing information that certifies the study objectives.
Forty-five questionnaires were retrieved represented 90% of
the total private plantation owners in the study area. The
obtained data analyzed as follows:
Chi-square, which is the test of equal probability of
opinions was use to test the opinion of plantation owners on
continuity
Chi-square is express as
∑ (
( )
)
Benefit cost ratio: it looks at profit at long term and
analysis continuity of the plantation activities in the study
area. It is express as follows:
Benefit cost ratio B/C = ∑ Bt / ∑ Ct
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A total of fifty (50) questionnaires were administered to
plantation owners, NGO`s, schools, Traditional and local
councils in Mezam division of the North west Region.
Forty- five (45) questionnaires retrieved after distribution;
these represented 90% of the total respondents.
A. Socio-economic characteristics of the respondent
The data presented in this section identified the various
interrelated components, such as social, economic,
ecological factors and management strategies of respondent.
Together, these components provided the information that
led to the effective understanding of the sustainability of
plantations in the study area
B. Sex distribution of respondents
The results in table 1 shows that more men than women are
involved in private plantation business 84.5% since men
other than women mostly own and inherit land. While the
women counterparts (15.5%) either inherited their plantation
from their late husbands or parents who do not have a son to
inherit them after their death. WA Cameroon, 2011 reported
that CAMEROON - Women produce 80% of food in rural
communities yet own only 2% of the land and benefit only
5% of the total agricultural inputs.
Women access to land depends on their relationship with
men: either as husbands, fathers, brothers or male relatives.
The inability of women to freely access and control
productive resources, places them at a weaker position in
terms of agricultural productivity and economic growth,
food security, family income, multiple livelihood strategies
and equal participation in governance. All these are set
backs to an emerging economy like Cameroon.
Cameroon - Gender Equality Advocacy Network
(GEADNET, 2011)
Table 1: Distribution of respondents according to gender
Source: Field survey, 2013
C. Marital status of respondent
The results in table 2 show that majority of respondents
84.5% who have plantations are married and only 15.5% are
widows. These results show that widows have inherited
plantations from their death husbands and many other
widows have been deprive of inheritance. This results is in
line with the works of (HMR, 2003), reported that, the
majority of evidence surrounding wealth dynamics at
widowhood is based on qualitative research. For example, a
Human Rights Watch brief on property rights
discriminations in Kenya recounts stories of dozens of
widows who were stripe of assets (including land and
livestock) and in many cases forced to undergo ritual
cleansing. Izumi (2007), defines asset disinheritance as a
form of gender- based violence and documents stories
of widows who are humiliated and robbed of self-
esteem and others who literally die defending their property
Category Frequency Percentage
Married 38 84.5
Single - -
Widow 7 15.5
Total 45 100
Table 2: Distribution of respondents according to marital
status
D. Motives for plantation establishment
Table 3 reveal that a larger proportion of respondents
(42.2%) established plantation just to protect family land
from been taken over by commercial investors and 33.3%
owned plantation for economic reasons while 13.3% and
11.1% of respondents established plantation for self-
employment and available market for their produce . This
means that more of the unemployed educated youth have
found their way in to the plantation business as a source of
livelihood. This is a positive development as it has help to
decongest the labour market, reduce land degradation,
provide timber/ fuel wood and improve living standards of
families. This has gone a long way to reduce destitution and
crime in the communities. This study reveals that if private
plantation business is well organized by the state through
grants and subsidies, it provide employment opportunities
and also reduce deforestation and hence mitigate the effects
of climate change and land degradation. The results is
Category Frequency Percentage
Male 38 84.5
Female 7 15.5
Total 45 100
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confirm by the study of Li, (2004) who reported that in
recent decades; the area of forest in mid-latitudes has
expanded due, in part, to an increase in Afforestation
projects. China, for example, has been implementing an
Afforestation scheme in order to reduce land degradation
and provide timber.
Category Frequency Percentage
Source of employment 5 11.1
Ready market 6 13.3
Protect family land 19 42.2
Economic 15 33.3
Total 45 100
Table 3: Distribution of respondent according to motives
Source: Field survey, 2013
E. Respondents having permit
The results in table 4 shows that all of the respondents
(100%) owning plantation do have an operation and
exploitation permits and their activities are done under
shadow as the state is unaware. Most of their plantations are
exploiting illegally without the knowledge of the concern
government agencies.
Category Frequency Percentage
Permit 00 0.00
No permit 45 100
Total 100
Table 4: Distribution of respondent according to those
having a permit
Source: Field survey, 2013
F. Distribution of respondents according to support
Table 5 reveals that 100% of respondent have not gotten any
form of support from Non Governmental organizations and
the state. The owners struggle by their selves and plantations
take between 15 – 20 years to mature and ready for
exploitation. This long period discourage many youths to go
into plantation business
Category Frequency Percentage
Support (yes) 00 0.00
No support (No) 45 100
Total 45 100
Table 5 Distribution of respondent according to support
Source: Field survey, 2013
G. Respondents according to their source of seedling
Table 6 shows that majority of respondents (84.5%) buy
their seedlings from private nurseries while (15.5%) get their
seedlings from the wild (wildlings). These planting stocks
can also affect plantation productivity, as genotype of
planting material is unknown.
Category Frequency Percentage
Wildlings 7 15.5
Private nurseries 38 84.5
ANAFOR 00 00
Total 45 100
Table 6: Distribution of respondent according to sources of
seedling
Source: Field survey, 2013
H. Distribution of respondent according to produce
The results in table 7 show that majority of plantation owner
(94.5%) sell their products as fuel wood while 31.1% and
24.4% sell their produce as poles and timber respectively.
The study also reveals that during pole and timber harvest
off cuts sold as fuel wood by plantation owners to increase
their profits. This is in line with the studies of May and Ash,
( 2009) who reported that the fast growing nature of
Eucalyptus species makes them ideally suited to the
production of wood for pulp, timber (including poles) and
fuel wood. These trees produce straight stems, which are
suitable poles for carrying electric and telephone cables
(Ndambi and Ndzerem, 2012)
Category Frequency Percentage
Poles 14 31.1
Timber 11 24.4
Fuel wood 20 44.5
Charcoal 00 00
Total 45 100
Table 7: Distribution of respondent according to produce
Source: Field survey, 2013
I. Shows tinning (prune) products
Table 8 shows majority (84.5%) of prune materials of a
plantation is use as household energy while 8.8% and 6.7%
of the tinning material sold and other left to decompose
inside the plantation respectively. Respondent said the leave
the material to decompose inside their plantation to improve
soil fertility.
Category Frequency Percentage
Sale 4 8.8
Household use 38 84.4
Allow to decompose 3 6.7
Total 45 100
Table 8: Distribution of respondent according to the use of
prune products
Source: Field survey, 2013
J. Ecological reasons for establishing a plantation
Table 9 reveals that respondent equality plant trees for
environmental reasons with respective percentages of 26.7%
for wind breaks, 8.8% for protection of watershed, 26.7%
protection of soil erosion, 26.7% for protection of landslide
and 11.1% as live fences respectively. The study also reveal
that community water project plant water conserving trees in
their catchment areas, while household located around steep
slopes planted trees to protect their homes from landslide
and soil erosion. Residence found in open areas also planted
windbreak around their homes, trees planted as live fence
over livestock farms, and vegetable gardens and when
mature owners can sell as timber and fuel wood. This has
gone a long way to reduce deforestation and protecting the
environment. This is in line with the studies of Li, (2004) in
recent decades; the area of forest in mid-latitudes has
expanded due, in part, to an increase in Afforestation
projects. China, for example, has been implementing an
Afforestation scheme in order to reduce land degradation
and provide timber.
Category Frequency Percentage
Wind breaks 12 26.7
Protection of watershed 4 8.9
Protection of soil erosion 12 26.7
Protection against landslide 12 26.7
4. Assessing the sustainability of forest plantations in Mezam Division of the North West Region, Cameroon
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Sacred site 00 00
Fodder 00 00
Live fences 5 11.1
Total 45 100
Table 9: Distribution of respondent according to
environmental reasons for establishing plantations
Source: Field survey, 2013
K. Contingency table of equal probability
Chi-square is use here to test the response of plantation
owner on a particular opinion, which equally shared by all
respondent. The result interned at getting the opinion of the
respondent on three responses. The results showed that X2
tabulated with degree of freedom 2 (i.e. 3-1) = 5.99 at 0.05
probability is greater than X2
calculated. The result indicates
that there is no significantly different from equal probability.
Thus, the option of plantation owners equally divided on the
issue of continuity.
Willing Not willing Indifferent
Observed 12 16 17
Expected 15 15 15
Table 10: Contingency table of observed and expected
frequencies on plantation owner’s response
Source: Field survey, 2013
Chi- square test of equal probability given below
∑ (
( )
)
X2
= (12 – 15)2
/15 + (16-15)2
/ 15 + (17 – 15)2
/ 15
= 9/15 + 1/15 + 4/15 = 0.6+ 0.07 + 0.3 = 0.97
X2
= 0.97
L. Benefit cost ratio
This concept is usually defined to suit owner`s conception of
the market. To the plantation owner efficiency may be to sell
his produce at the high price. To the consumer it may be
getting his forest product at the lower price. However, if
forest products prices are high in turn it limits consumer’s
purchases, which will in turn affect further plantation
establishment.
Also using the benefit cost ratio valve obtained
from the field survey, it indicate that benefit cost ration
calculated 0.7 is less than 1. This implies that private
plantation business in the study area yield less return
compare to other forms of land uses such as agriculture. The
result confirmed by the studies of Drigo, 1997, who started
that the price of products grown on converted forestland is
higher than the sales of timber and on contrary the derived
revenues available are often unattractive compared with
those available from land conversion to commercial
agriculture. Colchester, (1998) reported that as populations
grew with changes in farming methods such as livestock
grazing, commercial cultivation and land clearance for
infrastructural development had converted forestland.
Parameters Products (cfa francs)
Total revenue (TV) 12500
Variable cost (VC)
Permit -
Weeding 2500
Manure 750
Fertilizer -
Herbicide -
Insecticide -
Pruning 1750
Land preparation 1250
Felling/cross cutting 2500
Total cost (C) 8750
Total benefit (B) 3750
Number of years 5-10
Table 11: Showing benefit cost ratio per acre of forest
plantation in the study area
Source: Field survey, 2013
Benefit cost ratio B/C = ∑ Bt / ∑ Ct
B/C = 8750/12500
= 0.7
M. Priority species
Table 11reveals that majority of respondent (68.9%) have
planted Eucalyptus species, 11.1% planted pruns, and 8.8%
planted pine while 6.7% and 4.4% planted fruits trees and
palm respectively. This study also reveal that eucalyptus
species planted more by private plantation owners because
grow faster and coppice. This species gives more profit to
the businessperson than indigenous species, which takes a
longer time to grow. This is in line with the studies of May
and Ash, ( 2009) which reported that the fast growing nature
of Eucalyptus species makes them ideally suited to the
production of wood for pulp, timber (including poles) and
fuel wood. These trees produce straight stems, which are
suitable poles for carrying electric and telephone cables
(Ndambi and Ndzerem, 2012)
Species Frequency Percentages (%)
Eucalyptus 31 68.9
Pruns 5 11.1
Cypress 4 8.8
Fruit trees 3 6.7
Palm 2 4.4
Total 45 100
Table 11: Showing the distribution of plantations according
to priority species
Source: Field survey, 2013
N. Plantation distribution by ownership
Plantations forestry accounts for less than 1% of the surface
area of the division. The area cover by plantations is 240 ha.
The state has majority with 72ha followed by the local
councils with 67ha and private owners with 57 ha as can
been seen in table 12 below. Some of private plantation
dates back to the 1970 with the state seriously engage in
2009. The regional delegation of forestry has since 2009-
planted 8500 seedlings of eucalyptus species still plantation
forestry only provide a little fraction of the forest products
we need. This is in line with the studies of Sunderlin et al,
(2008) further said that legal and policy frameworks have
tended to favor industrial interests, timber production,
agriculture and mineral extraction, over the interests of
conservation and plantation activities.
Ownership
Productive Protective Total
No
Area
(ha)
No
Area
(ha)
No
Area
(ha)
State 3 30 3 42 6 72
Local council 4 37 4 30 8 67
Traditional
council
O O 5 14 5 14
Private 25 57 0 0 25 57
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NGO`s 2 9 3 13 5 22
Schools 0 0 4 8 4 8
Total 34 133 19 107 532 240
Table 12: Plantation distribution by ownership and
Management regime
Source: Field survey, 2013, ANAFOR, 2013
O. Plantation according to sizes
Table 13 shows that majority of the plantation (82%) are
less 5ha with 12% less than 10ha while plantation greater
than 10ha make up only 6%. This result implies that
although private plantations are larger in terms of numbers
but small in terms of hectares (sizes). This is due land tenure
system where individual can only have little land to divide
between subsistence agriculture and plantation forestry.
Despite this expansion, forest plantations still account for
less than 5 per cent of the total forest area in the world
(FAO, 2006).
Size range(ha) Frequency Cumulative freq Percentage (%)
0 – 5 41 41 82
6 -10 6 47 12
> 10 3 50 6
Table 13: Plantation distribution according to size (ha)
Source: Field survey, 2013
P. Survey of plantation in Mezam Division eucalyptus
The survey of Eucalyptus plantations in Mezam were the
diameter at breast height (dbh) and total height of trees (TH)
got with the aid of diameter tape and Hagar altimeter. See
table 15 below.
Parameters Dimension Structure
Age of stand Y 15-20
Dbh Cm 20.4
TH M 9.7
BA M2
3.2* 106
m2
BAT M2
1306
NTH t/ha 2500
CCF 0.01
VTH M3
0 .79m3
Density Tree/ M2
0.25
Spacing M 2*2
Table 15: Characterizing of Eucalyptus grandis stand in a
plantation in Ntabang Nkwen with escapement 5 * 8m
Source: Field survey, 2013
Key
DBH - diameter at breast height
TH - total height
BA - basal area per hectare
BAT - basal area per tree
NTH - number of trees per hectare
CCF - crown competition factor
VTH - volume of tree per hectare
IV. LAND PREPARATION METHOD
The results in table 16 shows that majority of plantation
owner (66.7%) prepare their land by manual clearing follow
by 20% who use chemical (herbicides) to prepare land for
planting. Respondent who use fire to clear land make up
13.3% of the sample population.
Category Frequency Percentage %
Manual clearing 30 66.7
Mechanical 00 00
Chemical 9 20
Fire 6 13.3
Total 45 100
Table 16: Showing the distribution of respondents according
to land preparation
Source: Field survey, 2013
A. The type of manure use
Table 17 shows that majority (51.1%) of plantation owners
do not use any form of manure. This is because fertilizers
are very expensive. Trees can only use available nutrients in
soil and this has contributed to slower growth of tree crops
in private owned plantations.
Fertilizers rank second with 33.3% of respondent
using fertilizer in areas where the soils have totally lost their
nutrients so as to amendment soil nutrients.
Compose rank third with 15.6% forest Plantation
who use compose manure to improve soil fertility. Compose
got decomposed reduces of prune materials. This has help
increase productivity in terms of quality and quantity as a
results improved standard of living of plantation owners.
Category Frequency Percentage %
Dug 0 00
Compose 7 15.6
Fertilizer 15 33.3
Non 23 51.1
Total 45 100
Table 17: Distribution of respondent according to type of
manure
Source: Field survey, 20133
B. Plantation regeneration methods
The results in table 18 showed that majority of plantation
owners 73.3% regenerate their plantation by coppicing and it
is cheaper and needs little tendering. This is follow by
complete tilting 15.6% and replacing stocks with new
planting materials. 6.7%, of respondents, use wildlings from
neighboring plantations o regenerate their plantation and
4.4% of respondent were not willing to regenerate their
plantations after harvest. This is because they are planning
to put the land in to other uses. As urban centers expand
toward suburbs, they are increasing demand for land to be
use for housing estates, industrials and social services.
Category Frequency Percentage %
Coppice 33 73.3
Tiling and planting new stock 7 15.6
Wildling 3 6.7
Non 2 4.4
Total 45 100
Table 18: Distribution of respondent according to
regeneration of plantation
Source: Field survey, 2013
C. Constrains to plantation forestry
The results in table 19 shows that access to finance ranked
highest with 51.1% to plantation establishment, as needed
material to establish and manage a plantation is expensive.
Such materials include amongst others chemical fertilizers,
planting stock and insecticides. In addition, seedling and
manual labour are priced high leaving plantation owners
only to the mercy of their family labour. Rations for
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household food and education are sometime use to run
plantation activities rendering families poorer as minimum
harvest period range between seven to ten years after
planting.
This is follow by wildfires with 31.1% Subsistence
agriculture and subsequent bush fire end up burning young
trees in a newly form plantation, this has lead to the lost of
many established plantation where the perpetrators go
unpunished
Policy and laws rank third with 17.8%. This
problem has many dimensions. In some cases, even the
agencies that are suppose to provide technical assistance fail
to do so. land tenure is also problem for entrepreneurs who
have capital and are willing to established large plantations
for commercial purposes this is becomes it is difficult to
obtain land couple with the difficult land laws and
corruption in the part of the official responsible.
Roads ranked forth with 8.9% for instant there are
no roads and where they exist, they might be seasonal feeder
roads, which are usually few and in most cases, have to be
constructed and maintain by communal efforts. These roads
discourage timber and fuel wood distributors to buy from
plantation that are not accessible as it will increase their own
cost and hence the final price of the product.
Parameters Frequency percentages %
Access to seedling 00 00
Access to free market 00 00
Financial 23 51.1
Lack of roads 4 8.9
Policy 8 17.8
Wild fires 14 31.1
Land tenure 9 20
Destruction of trees during felling 00 00
Labour 4 8.9
Total 45 100
Table 19: Showing the constrains to plantation forestry
Source: Field survey, 2013
V. CONCLUSION
From this study, we can conclude that plantation business in
Mezam is not sustainable in the near future despite the
marginal profits made by plantation owners. The study
showed that most of the plantation business is down by men
and majority do this business just to protecting family land
for their future generation. The results also proved that
forest plantations contribute just a small portion of the
household energy gotten from biomass. That most
communities still depends on the natural forest and agro-
forestry wood got from farms to complement household
energy and timber for construction
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