This document summarizes a study assessing soil nutrient depletion and its impact on household food insecurity in smallholder farming systems in the western hills of Lake Abaya, Ethiopia. Key findings include:
1) Soil analysis showed progressively decreasing organic matter, phosphorus, potassium, and cation exchange capacity with distance from homesteads, indicating soil nutrient depletion.
2) 61% of households were food insecure, unable to feed themselves for more than 9 months per year, compared to 28.2% in low-lying areas.
3) Per capita food availability was below the minimum recommended level in some villages, with undernourishment rates over 100% in the most food insecure village.
4
ABSTRACT- Composite soil samples were collected from the rhizospheres of Gmelina arborea, Elaeis guineensis and Hevea brasiliensis plantations as well as the Rain Forest of over 20 years of age in Akampa L.G.A. at depths of 0-15 cm (surface soil) and 15-30 cm (sub surface soil), to examine the effects of land use and management practices on some physical, chemical and microbial properties of the soils. The soils were mainly sandy loam, strongly acid in reaction and generally low in available P, exchangeable Ca2+, K+ and Na+, but moderate in Mg2+ except for the surface soil in Elaeis guineensis plantation which was however, high in organic C (4.29 %), total N (0.37 %) and Mg (3.9 cmol kg-1). The soils regardless of the land use patterns were high in exchangeable acidity with Elaeis guineensis having the least values. Diverse species of microorganisms were isolated across the different plantations and rain forest, however, Elaeis guineensis recorded the highest microbial count. Land use altered the microbial population and also had an effect on the species composition of soil microbial communities. Bacillus spp, Pseudomonas spp., Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp and Mucor spp as well as Aspergillus niger were however, common across the study sites while other organisms were location specific suggesting vegetation and land use meddling. The effects of land use pattern were noted in the chemical and microbial alteration observed mostly in the top of rhizosphere soils. It is pertinent that good management practices such as liming, mulching as well as cover cropping be carried out to increase and maintain the fertility of the soils.
Key-words- Land use, Physicochemical and Microbial properties, Rain Forest, Rhizosphere
Carbon sequestration through the use of biosolids in soils of the Pampas reg...Silvana Torri
Como citar este trabajo
Torri S, Lavado R. 2011. Carbon sequestration through the use of biosolids in soils of the Pampas region, Argentina. In: Environmental Management: Systems, Sustainability and Current Issues.Editor: H. C. Dupont, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Hauppauge, NY 11788,ISBN: 978-1-61324-733-4.pag. 221-236, 336 p
DOI: 10.21276/ijlssr.2016.2.3.14
ABSTRACT- The physico-chemical properties of four lands use types in Akokwa of Ideato North, Imo State, Nigeria
were determined. The land use patterns were fallow land (FL), cassava continuously cultivated land (CL), Oil palm
plantation (OPL) and Yam plot (YL). Composite samples were collected from various depths (0 -15 cm, 15 – 30 cm,
30 – 45 cm) across these land use patterns and analyzed in the laboratory. Data generated were subjected to analysis of
variance. Results obtained showed significant difference (P≤0.05) in soil bulk density, organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen
(TN), available phosphorus (Av. P) and ECEC across the four land use types. The bulk density value was highest at
30 – 45 cm depth by CL (1.93 g/cm3), followed by YL (1.89 g/cm3), OPL (1.70 g/cm3) and FL (1.68 g/cm3). The TN
content of the soil was highest in the FL at 0 – 15 cm depth (0.25%) while the lowest was found in the CL plot (0.03%).
The soil Av. P content was highest in the FL at 0 – 15 cm depth (9.63 mg/kg) while the lowest value was obtained in CL
plot (1.16 mg/kg). The values of OC at the depths of 0 – 15 cm, 15 – 30 cm and 30 – 45 cm in the FL (1.03%, 0.49%.
0.45%) were found to be significantly different (P≤0.05) from the CL (0.39%, 0.15%, 0.13%) land use type. Results
obtained showed that different land use types have varying effects on soil physical and chemical properties. The fallow
land had on the surface (0 – 15 cm) the highest content of soil chemical properties and lowest bulk density. Therefore,
farmers may periodically fallow their lands to build up organic matter, stabilize soil aggregates, improves nutrient cycles
for sustainable productivity.
Key-words- Land use, Soil chemical properties, Bulk density, Fallow land, Cassava land, Yam land, Oil palm land
ABSTRACT- Composite soil samples were collected from the rhizospheres of Gmelina arborea, Elaeis guineensis and Hevea brasiliensis plantations as well as the Rain Forest of over 20 years of age in Akampa L.G.A. at depths of 0-15 cm (surface soil) and 15-30 cm (sub surface soil), to examine the effects of land use and management practices on some physical, chemical and microbial properties of the soils. The soils were mainly sandy loam, strongly acid in reaction and generally low in available P, exchangeable Ca2+, K+ and Na+, but moderate in Mg2+ except for the surface soil in Elaeis guineensis plantation which was however, high in organic C (4.29 %), total N (0.37 %) and Mg (3.9 cmol kg-1). The soils regardless of the land use patterns were high in exchangeable acidity with Elaeis guineensis having the least values. Diverse species of microorganisms were isolated across the different plantations and rain forest, however, Elaeis guineensis recorded the highest microbial count. Land use altered the microbial population and also had an effect on the species composition of soil microbial communities. Bacillus spp, Pseudomonas spp., Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp and Mucor spp as well as Aspergillus niger were however, common across the study sites while other organisms were location specific suggesting vegetation and land use meddling. The effects of land use pattern were noted in the chemical and microbial alteration observed mostly in the top of rhizosphere soils. It is pertinent that good management practices such as liming, mulching as well as cover cropping be carried out to increase and maintain the fertility of the soils.
Key-words- Land use, Physicochemical and Microbial properties, Rain Forest, Rhizosphere
Carbon sequestration through the use of biosolids in soils of the Pampas reg...Silvana Torri
Como citar este trabajo
Torri S, Lavado R. 2011. Carbon sequestration through the use of biosolids in soils of the Pampas region, Argentina. In: Environmental Management: Systems, Sustainability and Current Issues.Editor: H. C. Dupont, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Hauppauge, NY 11788,ISBN: 978-1-61324-733-4.pag. 221-236, 336 p
DOI: 10.21276/ijlssr.2016.2.3.14
ABSTRACT- The physico-chemical properties of four lands use types in Akokwa of Ideato North, Imo State, Nigeria
were determined. The land use patterns were fallow land (FL), cassava continuously cultivated land (CL), Oil palm
plantation (OPL) and Yam plot (YL). Composite samples were collected from various depths (0 -15 cm, 15 – 30 cm,
30 – 45 cm) across these land use patterns and analyzed in the laboratory. Data generated were subjected to analysis of
variance. Results obtained showed significant difference (P≤0.05) in soil bulk density, organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen
(TN), available phosphorus (Av. P) and ECEC across the four land use types. The bulk density value was highest at
30 – 45 cm depth by CL (1.93 g/cm3), followed by YL (1.89 g/cm3), OPL (1.70 g/cm3) and FL (1.68 g/cm3). The TN
content of the soil was highest in the FL at 0 – 15 cm depth (0.25%) while the lowest was found in the CL plot (0.03%).
The soil Av. P content was highest in the FL at 0 – 15 cm depth (9.63 mg/kg) while the lowest value was obtained in CL
plot (1.16 mg/kg). The values of OC at the depths of 0 – 15 cm, 15 – 30 cm and 30 – 45 cm in the FL (1.03%, 0.49%.
0.45%) were found to be significantly different (P≤0.05) from the CL (0.39%, 0.15%, 0.13%) land use type. Results
obtained showed that different land use types have varying effects on soil physical and chemical properties. The fallow
land had on the surface (0 – 15 cm) the highest content of soil chemical properties and lowest bulk density. Therefore,
farmers may periodically fallow their lands to build up organic matter, stabilize soil aggregates, improves nutrient cycles
for sustainable productivity.
Key-words- Land use, Soil chemical properties, Bulk density, Fallow land, Cassava land, Yam land, Oil palm land
Does fertilization practices increase residual nitrate nitrogen in soil irrig...IJEAB
Treated wastewater has significantly improved DM yield compared to ground water. The form of nitrogen provided by the water was determinant in drawing yields. Irrigation with ground water (where nitrogen is as nitrate) induces a faster migration of nitrogen at depth. In contrast, using treated wastewater (where nitrogen is as ammonium), resulting in a relative distribution of the remaining nitric smaller in the lower profile and therefore higher in the surface, especially after the second year (2010). In addition, the relative distribution of nitrates in the soil surface is even more important in the presence of organic manure. All happens as if a certain amount of ammonium provided by treated wastewater is retained in the organic compounds of manure. Yields were significantly lower in irrigation with treated wastewater in the second year and especially when fertilization was given in additional. If the soil can be used for storage of the nitrogen supplied by the treated wastewater during the first year of irrigation (24 kg N-NO3/ha before irrigation to 115 kg N-NO3/ha after irrigation), to the second year the capacity drops (to 64 N-NO3/ha) and a significant increase in nitrate leaching occurs. Therefore, unlike the contribution of manure that seems enrich the topsoil nitrate nitrogen, at least during the first campaign, mineral fertilization unreasoning causes faster migration of nitrogen at depth.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
Theoretical work submitted to the Journal should be original in its motivation or modeling structure. Empirical analysis should be based on a theoretical framework and should be capable of replication. It is expected that all materials required for replication (including computer programs and data sets) should be available upon request to the authors.
Soil fertility is the backbone of agriculture systems and plays a key role in determining food quantity and quality. The intension of soil fertility management is to improve soil buffering capacity and to reduce soil degradation. Soil health is fundamental for a healthy food production. It provides essential nutrients, water, oxygen and support to the roots, all elements that favor the growth and development of plants for food production. Now the Indian population is 1.37 billion (Census India gov.in) Land area availability is 3.287 million km2. Net cultivable area is 143 million ha. Degraded land in India around 141 million ha. Per capita land availability is 0.3 ha per farmer (Indian express Nov 6,2009). Food grain supply 234.0 million tons, food grain demand 236.2 million tones (Praduman Kumar et al.,2016). In the year 2019 Global Hunger Index(GHI), India ranks 102nd out of 117 qualifying countries. With a score of 30.3, India suffers from a level of hunger that is serious (Global Hunger Index Organization). Nearly 1 billion people around the world suffer from hunger. Soil management is important, both directly and indirectly, to crop productivity, environmental sustainability, and human health (Mittal et al., 2008). To achieve future food security, the management of soils in a sustainable manner will be the challenge, through proper nutrient management and appropriate conservation practices. Such as maintain soil organic carbon, effective utilization of natural resources, use of non-monetary input like LEISA etc., will be the better option to fulfils the ever-growing population’s food and nutritional security.
Presentation by Steve Diver from the 2012 Resilient Farmer Workshop at the Kerr Center's Cannon Horticulture Plots in Poteau, Oklahoma. Cover crops, soil organic matter, soil food web
Impact of Land Use Systems and Parent Materials on Soil Quality Indicators in...BRNSS Publication Hub
A study on the impact of parent materials and land use on soil quality indicators in soils of Akwa Ibom State was conducted. The aim was to evaluate the impact of parent materials and land use systems on soil quality indicators. Three parent materials (coastal plain sand, sandstone/shale, and beach ridge sand) and three land use types (cultivated land, fallow land of 3–5 years, and oil palm plantation) were selected for the study. In each land use type per parent material, six composite soil samples were collected from the representative location within the three land use types using soil auger within 0–30 cm soil depth. Undisturbed core samples were also collected for bulk density and saturated hydraulic conductivity determinations. A total of 52 soil samples were generated for laboratory analysis. Results showed that among the parent materials, coastal plain sand soil had the highest silt + clay fraction, organic matter, total N, available P, and exchangeable K, followed by sandstone/shale while beach ridge sand soil had the least. Among the land use types, oil palm plantation had the highest silt + clay fraction, organic matter, exchangeable Ca and K, followed by fallow land while cultivated land had the least. The combination of parent material and land use indicated that cultivated, fallow and oil palm plantation of coastal plain sand soils had the highest water and nutrient holding capacity, high rooting volume, good aeration status, less erosion threat, higher exchange sites, more available nutrients for plant uptake, more biological activity, etc., followed by sandstone/shale while beach ridge sand had the least in the study area. The application of more organic and less inorganic fertilizers will improve the soil quality of the study area.
Variability in the physicochemical properties of soils of different land uses form from the same lithology was studied. Soil samples were collected from surface (0 – 20 cm) and subsurface (20 – 40 cm) depths from three land use namely fallow land, continuous cultivated land and mechanic village land. The soils were air dried, sieved with 2 mm sieve and subjected to routine laboratory analysis. Results obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and significant treatment means were separated using Least Significant Difference (LSD) at 0.05 probability level. Relationship between selected soil properties were determined using correlation analysis. Results showed that the textures of the studied soils were not affected by land use practices. Bulk density increased with increase in depth with fallow land recoding the lowest values of 0.86 g/cm3 (0.-20 cm depth) and 1.06 g/cm3 (20 – 40 cm depth). Land use types significantly (P = 0.05) affected soil chemical properties such as soil pH, soil organic carbon, total N, available P and exchangeable cations with the highest values recorded in fallow land, followed by palm plantation and the least was continuous cultivated land. There were slight variations among soil properties in the three land use types studied. Significant positive and negative correlations existed and some soil properties. Good soil management practices such as organic fertilization, zero tillage and mulching is recommended especially in continuous cultivated lands.
Does fertilization practices increase residual nitrate nitrogen in soil irrig...IJEAB
Treated wastewater has significantly improved DM yield compared to ground water. The form of nitrogen provided by the water was determinant in drawing yields. Irrigation with ground water (where nitrogen is as nitrate) induces a faster migration of nitrogen at depth. In contrast, using treated wastewater (where nitrogen is as ammonium), resulting in a relative distribution of the remaining nitric smaller in the lower profile and therefore higher in the surface, especially after the second year (2010). In addition, the relative distribution of nitrates in the soil surface is even more important in the presence of organic manure. All happens as if a certain amount of ammonium provided by treated wastewater is retained in the organic compounds of manure. Yields were significantly lower in irrigation with treated wastewater in the second year and especially when fertilization was given in additional. If the soil can be used for storage of the nitrogen supplied by the treated wastewater during the first year of irrigation (24 kg N-NO3/ha before irrigation to 115 kg N-NO3/ha after irrigation), to the second year the capacity drops (to 64 N-NO3/ha) and a significant increase in nitrate leaching occurs. Therefore, unlike the contribution of manure that seems enrich the topsoil nitrate nitrogen, at least during the first campaign, mineral fertilization unreasoning causes faster migration of nitrogen at depth.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
Theoretical work submitted to the Journal should be original in its motivation or modeling structure. Empirical analysis should be based on a theoretical framework and should be capable of replication. It is expected that all materials required for replication (including computer programs and data sets) should be available upon request to the authors.
Soil fertility is the backbone of agriculture systems and plays a key role in determining food quantity and quality. The intension of soil fertility management is to improve soil buffering capacity and to reduce soil degradation. Soil health is fundamental for a healthy food production. It provides essential nutrients, water, oxygen and support to the roots, all elements that favor the growth and development of plants for food production. Now the Indian population is 1.37 billion (Census India gov.in) Land area availability is 3.287 million km2. Net cultivable area is 143 million ha. Degraded land in India around 141 million ha. Per capita land availability is 0.3 ha per farmer (Indian express Nov 6,2009). Food grain supply 234.0 million tons, food grain demand 236.2 million tones (Praduman Kumar et al.,2016). In the year 2019 Global Hunger Index(GHI), India ranks 102nd out of 117 qualifying countries. With a score of 30.3, India suffers from a level of hunger that is serious (Global Hunger Index Organization). Nearly 1 billion people around the world suffer from hunger. Soil management is important, both directly and indirectly, to crop productivity, environmental sustainability, and human health (Mittal et al., 2008). To achieve future food security, the management of soils in a sustainable manner will be the challenge, through proper nutrient management and appropriate conservation practices. Such as maintain soil organic carbon, effective utilization of natural resources, use of non-monetary input like LEISA etc., will be the better option to fulfils the ever-growing population’s food and nutritional security.
Presentation by Steve Diver from the 2012 Resilient Farmer Workshop at the Kerr Center's Cannon Horticulture Plots in Poteau, Oklahoma. Cover crops, soil organic matter, soil food web
Impact of Land Use Systems and Parent Materials on Soil Quality Indicators in...BRNSS Publication Hub
A study on the impact of parent materials and land use on soil quality indicators in soils of Akwa Ibom State was conducted. The aim was to evaluate the impact of parent materials and land use systems on soil quality indicators. Three parent materials (coastal plain sand, sandstone/shale, and beach ridge sand) and three land use types (cultivated land, fallow land of 3–5 years, and oil palm plantation) were selected for the study. In each land use type per parent material, six composite soil samples were collected from the representative location within the three land use types using soil auger within 0–30 cm soil depth. Undisturbed core samples were also collected for bulk density and saturated hydraulic conductivity determinations. A total of 52 soil samples were generated for laboratory analysis. Results showed that among the parent materials, coastal plain sand soil had the highest silt + clay fraction, organic matter, total N, available P, and exchangeable K, followed by sandstone/shale while beach ridge sand soil had the least. Among the land use types, oil palm plantation had the highest silt + clay fraction, organic matter, exchangeable Ca and K, followed by fallow land while cultivated land had the least. The combination of parent material and land use indicated that cultivated, fallow and oil palm plantation of coastal plain sand soils had the highest water and nutrient holding capacity, high rooting volume, good aeration status, less erosion threat, higher exchange sites, more available nutrients for plant uptake, more biological activity, etc., followed by sandstone/shale while beach ridge sand had the least in the study area. The application of more organic and less inorganic fertilizers will improve the soil quality of the study area.
Variability in the physicochemical properties of soils of different land uses form from the same lithology was studied. Soil samples were collected from surface (0 – 20 cm) and subsurface (20 – 40 cm) depths from three land use namely fallow land, continuous cultivated land and mechanic village land. The soils were air dried, sieved with 2 mm sieve and subjected to routine laboratory analysis. Results obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and significant treatment means were separated using Least Significant Difference (LSD) at 0.05 probability level. Relationship between selected soil properties were determined using correlation analysis. Results showed that the textures of the studied soils were not affected by land use practices. Bulk density increased with increase in depth with fallow land recoding the lowest values of 0.86 g/cm3 (0.-20 cm depth) and 1.06 g/cm3 (20 – 40 cm depth). Land use types significantly (P = 0.05) affected soil chemical properties such as soil pH, soil organic carbon, total N, available P and exchangeable cations with the highest values recorded in fallow land, followed by palm plantation and the least was continuous cultivated land. There were slight variations among soil properties in the three land use types studied. Significant positive and negative correlations existed and some soil properties. Good soil management practices such as organic fertilization, zero tillage and mulching is recommended especially in continuous cultivated lands.
Ability of Household Food Insecurity Measures to Capture Vulnerability & Resi...TransferProjct
Using evidence from a cash transfer program in Zimbabwe, the presentation covers how quantitative measures can capture vulnerability and resilience at the household level
Effect of Yam-Based Production on Food Security Status of Farm Households in...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— The study assessed the effect of yam-based production on the food security status of farm households in Edo south, Nigeria. Specifically, the objectives of the study were to examine the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, analyse the contribution of yam-based production to the income profile of the households, estimate their mean per capita daily calorie intake and examine the determinants and the probability of households being food secured.
A multi-stage sampling technique was adopted in selecting 120 farm households from Edo South agro-ecological zone of Edo-State data were collected with the aid of well – structured interview schedule on households socio-economic variables which included sex, age, marital status, level of education, farm size, household size and household income and expenditure profile among others. Data collected were analyzed by appropriate statistical analysis which included frequency counts, percentages, mean, standard deviation, and Logit regression model.
The results showed that 97 males, represented majority of the households with (80.8%) and females 23, represented 19.2%of the house heads. The mean age of household reads was 50 years, of which (92.5%) of them were married, 53% owned houses and 58% had farming experience of 11.20 years the mean household size was estimated as seven persons with a mean farm size of 1.35 hectares. The mean annual household income in the study area was estimated as N 496.850.88 out of which farm income contributed N 62.4307, and off income contributed (37.57%). The mean monthly household expenditure was N 40,934.31 out of which food expenditure accounted for 40 .22%. The results also showed that the area was fairly food -secured with 52.5% being food secured and 47.67 being food insecure with mean per capita calorie intake of 36,okcal and 120.2 kcal respectively.
Finally, the results also revealed that three variables in the logit model were significant in explaining variation in the food security status of the households. These are farm size, form income and off-income. It was recommended that government should provide bigger plot of land for those farmers who are determined to take farming as business.
The abstract should summarize the content of the paper. Try to keep the abstract below 250 words. Do not make references nor display equations in the abstract. The journal will be printed from the same-sized copy prepared by you. Your manuscript should be printed on A4 paper (21.0 cm x 29.7 cm). It is imperative that the margins and style described below be adhered to carefully. This will enable us to keep uniformity in the final printed copies of the Journal. Please keep in mind that the manuscript you prepare will be photographed and printed as it is received. Readability of copy is of paramount importance.
The presentation was part of the Food Security in India: the Interactions of Climate Change, Economics, Politics and Trade workshop, organized by IFPRI-CUTS on March 11 in New Delhi, India. The project seeks to explore a model for analyzing food security in India through the interactions of climate change, economics, politics and trade.
The Effect of State and Local Buffering Mechanisms on Household Food Security...May Cho
Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2012 Jul;43(4):1042-52.
Household food security and buffering mechanisms in Thai and non-Thai households in Nong Loo Sub-district, Sangkhla Buri, Thailand.
Cho MM1, Knowles J, Atwood S.
What works where and for whom? Farm Household Strategies for Food Security ac...ILRI
Poster prepared by Wichern J, van Wijk MT, Descheemaeker K, van Heerwaarden J, Frelat R and Giller KE for the Tropentag 2016 Conference on Solidarity in a Competing World—Fair Use of Resources, Vienna, Austria, 19–21 September 2016
Impact of food transfers in zomba abermanIFPRIMaSSP
This study is the first component of a multi-pronged research study on breaking the cycle of food insecurity in Malawi. Results from other components are to follow, including promoting nutritious value chains and understanding the drivers of food security and resilience. This study examines the impact of a food-based social transfers (MVAC) on household food security, diets, and nutrition status of young children during the lean season in Malawi. This was a quasi-experimental prospective study based on two rounds of a mixed methods surveys study in Zomba district in southern Malawi. Study outcomes include household expenditures and food consumption (7-day recall), child level dietary diversity (24-hour recall) and nutritional status (anthropometric measurements). We follow a mixed methods approach and undertake child and household surveys and assessments as well as in-depth interviews with household members. We estimate program impact by combining propensity score matching (PSM) and difference-in-difference (DID) methods. Qualitative data provides insights into community norms on targeting and sharing that may impact the effectiveness of the transfers.
Food transfers appear to have a protective effect on food security, diets and nutrition status of young children. There was suggestion of a positive effect on micronutrient availability in diets, particularly for iron. At child level, highly significant positive effects were found on dietary diversity and food variety scores, corresponding to increases of 15% and 12% respectively, as well as a positive effect on stunting. But targeting did not appear to be progressive or aligned to MVAC criteria. Furthermore, the coverage of food transfers is extremely low compared to extent of food insecurity. Community norms about targeting and sharing may explain the targeting errors and also may be seen as a response to low coverage.
Similar to Assessing soil nutrient depletion to household food insecurity in the smallholders farming system in the western hills of lake abaya, ethiopia
Fate of cadmium, copper, lead and zinc on soils after the application of dif...Silvana Torri
Como citar este trabajo
Torri S, Lavado R. 2009. Fate of cadmium, copper, lead and zinc on soils after the application of different treated sewage sludge in soils of the Pampas region. In: Sewage Treatment: Uses, Processes and Impact. Editors: Anna Stephens and Mark Fuller, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Hauppauge, NY 11788. ISBN: 978-1-60692-959-9. 95-123. 394p.
Limiting factors for pasture and cereal production in marginal soils of the s...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Typical soils of Southwestern Buenos Aires Province were evaluated to determine quality and capability for cereal and forage production having in mind potential improvements due to amendment with organic residual from agroindustrial wastes process. Studied soils from Mollisol order were, Argiudoll and Argiustol suborder, of marginal area of Pampa Argentina. The organic matter content of those soils corresponded to weakly humic soils which shows the transition from the Pampas zone to the semi-arid zone and indicates a major limiting factor. Granulometric analyses were similar, with a sandy loam texture for the Tres Arroyos soil and a borderline sandy silt loam for the Cabildo soil. Anycase the results were below the limit that indicates salinity problems. Low availability of essential micronutrient like Copper and Molibdenum were another limiting factor of the Tres Arroyos soil, where the cultivation of winter grains, such as wheat and barley is very important for regional economy. The availability of the micronutrients Zn and Cu are strongly dependent on the soil pH; therefore, the more alkaline the conditions (such as for the Cabildo soil), as a limiting factor mainly for cereals sensitive to Cinc deficiencies like maize and sorghum. Soils from this marginal areas of the Pampas (Argentina), could be improved with respect to the factors that limit soil quality and productivity.
Taking all these into account, it is important to increase the fertility of the soil from the erosion process in Ismayilli and to prevent the washing of fodder crops from perennial herbs. The cultivation of these plants in the mountainous regions protects the slopes from the terrible erosion process and provides the animals with a strong fodder. It is proved by the results of the research that restoration of fertility and ecological balance of erosion lands and the implementation of soil-agro-technical measures to increase productivity are of great importance. Due to the application of these measures, I, as a result of improving the water and physical properties of the affected land, prevent surface water flows. In addition, the results of the study have been proven by the fact that, for certain reason, erosion and erosion hazards are most likely to be taken over by the sowing of perennial herbs. Thus, perennial herbs, in particular, accumulate the nitrogen atmosphere of the legumes, enriches the soil with organic matter, accelerates the formation of water-resistant granular - topical structure and improves its water-physical properties, which in turn facilitates the rapid digestion of foodstuffs.
Variability of some physicochemical properties on Lithosequence in Funtua, Northwestern, Nigeria were studied to determine the extent of variation in physical and chemical properties within and between soils developed on basement complexes, loess over basement complexes and loess parent materials. Variability was more pronounced in chemical than in physical properties. Particle density (CV = 0.23%) and exchangeable sodium percentage (CV = 2.23) were the least variable physicochemical properties. Physicochemical properties with highest variability are Si/C ratio (CV =88.29%) and AP (CV = 149%). Less variability (CV ≤ 15%) irrespective of soils were recorded in particle density, bulk density and pH, and therefore required similar management for all the soils. Silt, AWHC, CEC, CEC clay and base saturation were consistently moderately variable (CV: >15 ≤ 35%). Silt/clay ratio, K, OC, TN, AP and AS were consistently highly variable CV > 35%). Large proportion of properties of the soils were highly variable in all the soils with 10 (42%) of physicochemical properties of soils on BC, 9 (38%) on LBC and 13 (54%) on LS. The highly variable status was attributed to difference in land use types, management and cultural practices occurring within the study area. Properties significantly influenced by Lithosequence include available water holding capacity, magnesium, potassium, CEC and TEA. They were significantly highest in soils on loess and contributed to variation in pattern of nutrient and exchangeable bases retention.
A case study of Tangla Town, Udalguri, BTAD, Assam
Similar to Assessing soil nutrient depletion to household food insecurity in the smallholders farming system in the western hills of lake abaya, ethiopia (20)
Essentials of Automations: Optimizing FME Workflows with ParametersSafe Software
Are you looking to streamline your workflows and boost your projects’ efficiency? Do you find yourself searching for ways to add flexibility and control over your FME workflows? If so, you’re in the right place.
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- Essentials of FME Parameters: Understand the pivotal role of parameters, including Reader/Writer, Transformer, User, and FME Flow categories. Discover how they are the key to unlocking automation and optimization within your workflows.
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- Optimization Strategies in FME Flow: Explore the creation and strategic deployment of parameters in FME Flow, including the use of deployment and geometry parameters, to maximize workflow efficiency.
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Key Trends Shaping the Future of Infrastructure.pdfCheryl Hung
Keynote at DIGIT West Expo, Glasgow on 29 May 2024.
Cheryl Hung, ochery.com
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Assessing soil nutrient depletion to household food insecurity in the smallholders farming system in the western hills of lake abaya, ethiopia
1. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol 2, No.4, 2012
Assessing Soil Nutrient Depletion to Household Food Insecurity in
the Smallholders Farming System in the Western Hills of Lake
Abaya, Ethiopia
Teshome Yirgu Bayu*
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Arba Minch University
PO Box 21, Arba Minch, Ethiopia
*E-mail: teshomeyirgu_bayu@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
Soil nutrient depletion is major environmental problems that threaten food security in Ethiopia, especially in the
study area. It can be regarded as a direct result of the past agricultural practices in the area. In the study, an attempt
has been made to examine the adverse effect of soil nutrient depletion to the household livelihood situation in the
western hills of Lake Abaya, Ethiopia.
To assess the research data methodologies such as soil analysis, food balance sheet, per capita food availability in
kilocalories and multiple regression models were utilized. The laboratory analysis of soil had shown that organic
matter, cation exchange capacity (CEC), available phosphorus and potassium content of the soil is progressively
decreasing away from the homestead. The study further revealed that 61 percent of the household’s feed
themselves for not more than nine months in a year against 28.2 percent, those from low-lying areas are
self-sufficient. An analysis of this kind would help the local government to take timely intervention and help
planners and donor agencies to include the problems as a priority area of intervention in their program.
Keywords: Soil nutrient depletion, Food insecurity, Food balance sheet, Per capita food availability.
1. Introduction
1.1 Background to the problem
The unique topography, soil type, intensive rainfall, poor land management and deforestation all have resulted in
heavy runoff that induced soil degradation and are considered to be some of the major problems threatening
agricultural development and food security in Ethiopia (Tadesse, 2001; Sonneveld and Keyzer, 2003; Holden and
Shiferaw, 2004). A research document on the cause and impact of soil degradation in Ethiopia had viewed that
natural and human factor as the short term causes of degradation (Wischmeier and smith 1978). Several other
researchers have discussed about the anthropogenic factors, especially the underlying socio-economic conditions,
such as population pressure, poverty, land rights and market access (FAO, 1994; Kerr, 1998; and Anand, 2003).
It is observed that soils in the Ethiopian highlands are severely eroded. In some localities it reached to an extent
that it will never be restored in a short period even with the application of organic manure and modern farm inputs
(Lal, 1994). Erosion adversely affects crop productivity by reducing the availability of water, nutrients and
organic matter content. Organic matter is important for water retention, soil structure, and cation exchange
capacity of soil and is the source of a large portion of the nutrients needed by plants. As noted by Alexander (1977),
after water, shortages of soil nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium) are the most important
factors limiting crop production. Thus, Soil erosion by water must be considered the most important of all
degradation processes, and therefore the extent of damage is taken here as the sole indicator of the present status of
soil resource in the region.
In a predominantly agrarian society like Ethiopia, soil nutrient depletion is a severe threat to food supply and is
estimated that food productivity is declining at a rate of 2-3 percent annually (Lemenih et al. 2005). This poses a
serious problem to the national food supply. The mountainous topography, extensive cultivation and heavy
population pressure make the study area vulnerable to soil nutrient depletion and food shortage. With the declining
soil infertility, farm income, land scarcity and lack of development intervention youth and adult population are
prone to out-migration in search for alternative source of income in the major cities of the country. Due to the
aforementioned constraints agricultural production cannot meet consumption need of the households and making
the people food insecure. Hence, studies on the on-going nutrient depletion and the resultant effect on food supply
become important to take remedial measures before the situation became severe. This investigation has assessed
the status of soil nutrients depletion and thereby treats severity of household food shortage in the western hills of
Lake Abaya, Ethiopia.
1.2 Site Description
Covering an area of 189 km2, the study area is located in the South- western part of Ethiopia, at about 495 km
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2. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol 2, No.4, 2012
south of Addis Ababa. It is located in between 60 7’ 30”N to 60 19’ 00”N latitude and 370 31’ 30”E to 37o 40’
30”E longitude. The region encompasses 20 rural villages (figure 1).
The area enjoys cool humid climate in the upland and dry sub humid climate in the downstream. It has great
geographic diversity, with high and rugged terrain, flat topped plateaus, deep gorges and rolling plains. Soils in the
upland area are volcanic in origin, such as cambisols and nitisols. While, in the lake area and river plains deposited
fluvisols are dominant. Except in a few remote localities, the area is devoid of forest cover. However, bamboo,
poducarpus, acacia, eucalyptus tree and thickets are seen in some pocket localities. The study area is among a few
densely populated parts of Ethiopia, with population density of 408 persons per sq.km.
2. Data sources and Methodologies
2.1 Soil Sampling and analysis
Soil samples were collected from the surface layer (0-30cm) of different land-use types and analyzed for its
physical and chemical properties, following the standard procedure of Jackson, (1967) to compare differences in
soil nutrient content across the land-uses. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the difference
in soil properties across the land use type.
2.2 Socio-economic data
Household survey was conducted between September and February, 2011 to obtain Socio-economic data
pertaining to household income, size of farm production, off-farm income, etc. Two hundred fifty five households
from three agro-ecologies were interviewed using structured survey questionnaire on household food variables.
To quantify household food variables methodologies such as food balance sheet (Negatu, 2005) and multiple
regression models was utilized.
3. Results and Discussion
The nature of soil and physical properties such as color, structure and depth are the main determinants of soil
fertility in an area. As field identification of soil color at dry state has shown that in the study area, especially in
homestead plot the color of soil sample was dusk red. The dusky red color is due to the presence of high humus
content in the area. On the other hand, in the outfields red color soils were observed, indicating that there is high
concentration of ferrous minerals. This is resulted from the leaching processes, which is due to heavy rainfall
situation in the area. In addition, soil texture is the other important permanent attributes of soil. It indicates the
potential rate of infiltration, water-holding capacity, degree of leaching and erodibility of the soil.
Laboratory analysis of soil had shown that average size of sand, silt and clay fraction in the homesteads were
36.6 percent, 40 percent and 23.4 percent, respectively, while in the outfields the proportion of sand, silt and clay
were 17.7 percent, 22 percent and 60.3 percent, respectively. These show that the soil textural classes in the
homestead and outfields were loam and clay, respectively. From laboratory result of soil analysis it is possible to
suggest that due to high application of organic manure in homestead plots soil textural class was dominantly
became loamy compared to poorly manured distant plots. In the study area, the soil reaction varies between 7.6
and 5.5 in homestead and outfields, respectively. Organic matter content of soil varies between 0.34 percent and
3.2 percent in the out fields and homestead fields, respectively. This is due to farmer’s management practices in
the homestead plot, where they enrich it with manure and crop residue, as such fields did not face labor shortage
compared to the outfields. As revealed in Fig. 2, there is significant decrease in organic matter content of the soil
in the outfields by 31.6 percent compared to the homesteads; suggesting that farm fields are depleted with distance
from the main dwellings.
Laboratory result of soil analysis further revealed that available phosphorus and potassium exhibited
significant variation between the land-use types. The decrease in the outfields was 6.2 percent and 6.7 percent for
available phosphorus and potassium, respectively. The analytical result indicated that average cation exchange
capacity, CEC concentration was found to be highest in both land use types, which is more than 30.5
mill-equivalents per 100 gram soil (Fig. 2).
This is due to the presence of large amount of clay particles in the soil. However, at land use level similar to
the concentration of soil organic matter, the proportion of CEC in the outfields were decreased by 76 percent
compared to the homestead fields, suggesting that the concentration of CEC is influenced by source of animal
manure which is dominantly available near the main dwellings.
Further, what was currently observed in the study area is that there is continuous cultivation of crop without
using any conservation measure. This practice leads to soil erosion and soil nutrient depletion hazards, which
further enhanced the plots for declined crop productivity. Therefore, from the discussion given above, organic
matter and nutrient content of soil in varying land-uses are severely depleted and is one of the major causes for the
currently declined crop productivity and increasing food shortage in the study area.
The major food types used in the study area are cereal, enset and root crops, while animal products and
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3. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol 2, No.4, 2012
vegetables are rarely consumed. As shown in Table 1, farmers in the study area had access to food from three
sources, namely own farm production, food purchased from market and grains obtained from Food for Work
schedule (FFW). In the study period between March 2010 and February 2011, of the total food availability,
purchased food from market contributed the highest proportion (60.3 percent) followed by own production (33.5
percent) and food for work schedule (6.2 percent).
At village level, the contribution of purchased food to the total households’ food availability was found to be
86.6 percent, 24.3 percent and 20.9 percent in Lante, Damoze and Dallo, respectively. This simply reveals that in
semi arid lowlands, households are shifted to cultivate high value cash crops instead of cereal crops that worth low
price and purchased cereals from market.
Food grain production per capita decreased significantly in the study area. For instance during the study year,
yields of some of the major cereal crops, such as barley, wheat and maize were 870 kg, 900 kg and 1340 kg per
hectares, respectively. However, as revealed in Central Statistical Authority (CSA, 2008) that at the national levels
the yield of similar crops was 1380, 1630 and 2120 kg, respectively. When consider the per hectare yield of these
crops, it is less than 40 percent of the national yield estimate. This means that, production of barley, wheat and
maize is below the minimum amount that a hectare of farm can yield even at the sub-Saharan level. In such a
circumstance, in the absence of other sources of income, it is improbable that agricultural production alone can
cover the household’s means of subsistence. To confirm the aforementioned analysis households in the study area
were requested regarding their perception on food production in the last ten years. Accordingly, more than 82
percent of the respondents reported that the crop production on their farm is continuously decreasing for the last
ten years, while the remaining 18 percent replied an increase in production. From soil analysis it was ascertained
that the declined agricultural production was resulted from the cumulative effect in the reduction of organic matter
and other nutrient content of soil. Thus at present in the study area, due to progressive depletion of soil and decline
in farm size farm production cannot cover household annual food requirement.
To confirm the situation socio-economic data was collected through household survey and food balance sheet
for the year 2010/11 was computed as presented in Table 2. As can be seen from the table among the three sample
villages, Dallo and Damoze has a per capita food availability of 1112 cal. and 1665 calories, respectively.
Medically allowed per capita minimum daily dietary intake for adult person is equivalent to 2100 calories
(Ethiopian Nutrition Institute, 1990). Thus, the study result indicates a high level of food insecurity among the
households in the highland villages. However, Lante village with the per capita food availability of 2560 calories
was found to be relatively food secure part of the study area. The foregoing analysis clearly reveals that food
energy deficiency in Dallo village was more than 47 percent compared to 21.9 percent self sufficiency in Lante
village, suggests that there is marked regional imbalances exist in food availability among the studied villages.
At the study area level, the estimated average daily per capita food available was 1785.6 calories (which is 85
percent of the minimum recommended allowance). Thus, food data reveals the prevalence of under-nourishment
as 62.4 percent compared to 46 percent under-nourishment for Ethiopia in 2007/08 (UNDP, 2008). However, in
one of the most food insecure village (Dallo) the prevalence of under- nourishment rate was 100 percent. Most of
the population in the area is below poverty line of 0.5 kg daily per capita consumption requirement. Therefore,
taking consumption of less than 0.62 kg of cereal food per adult equivalent per day as an indicator of food
insecurity, daily per capita requirement of 0.5kg makes the study area in a severe situation of food shortage.
Further investigation of the data depicts that variation of food availability among the households with in
villages seems very wide as shown by the computed coefficient of variation in table 2. The coefficient of variation
for Dallo, Damoze and Lante was 32.4 percent, 72.6 percent and 44.9 percent, respectively.
Among others the followings are influential factors that affect household livelihood in the study area. In
traditional community like the lake region, numerous farm variables do influence household food production and
availability. For instance, size of farm and labor, number of oxen, livestock, and the use of modern farm inputs
are critical factors that strongly influences households’ livelihood. The findings from multiple regression models
reveals statistical relationship as presented in table 3.
In the finding, multiple correlation (the correlation between per capita food availability and eleven
independent variables) is R = 0.742. The R-value of 0.742 suggests that there exists a strong positive relationship
between the variables considered in the analysis. The percentage of eleven independent variables (that is due to a
combination of factors such as farm size, fertilizer use, crop harvest, etc) is then R2 = 0.550. Hence, in this study,
55 percent of the variance of per capita food availability is explained by eleven independent variables. Because
1-R2 is 0.45, 45 percent of per capita food availability may be explained by weak infrastructural development,
unstable market situation, errors in data collection, and etc.
Similarly, food availability variation with an ANOVA (analysis of variance) F-ratio of 19.481 was also
statistically significant. In the study area among the independent variables, size of harvest, livestock population,
farm oxen, use of improved seed, fertility of the farmland, and education of household heads were found to be the
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4. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol 2, No.4, 2012
main factor that affects food availability at household level ( see the significance of ‘t’ in table 3).
However, contrarily the increase in food availability has resulted in a similar increase in family size.
Furthermore, the inverse relationship between independent variables (such as farm size, chemical fertilizer, and
use of off-farm activities) and food availability was unexpected situation, because it was expected that these
variables can have a positive contribution to the household food availability.
4. Conclusion
This study, which set out to examine the adverse effects of soil depletion on the livelihood of the households in the
western hills of Lake Abaya has revealed that there was a substantial depletion of soil nutrients and decline in the
humus content of soil. Landlessness and food shortage are the main problems, which force subsistence farmers to
expand their cultivation on to erosion-prone marginal lands. Thus, such practices may further aggravate the
condition of soil erosion, particularly in the up stream area.
Soil nutrient depletion, acidity, decline in the organic matter content, reduced permeability, etc are among
others major production constraints in the area that requires due attention from the agronomists and extension
agents. However, recently what was observed in the study area is with the increasing deforestation and
surface run-off, soil depletion has further becoming worse. This suggests the need for conservation and
reforestation measures especially in the mountainous areas to make farming sustainable and productive.
As revealed in the study that household factors played an immense role in determining food security status of
the study area. The analysis of food shortage showed that the household food production during the survey period,
especially in the two highland villages is lower than annual food requirement as revealed in the food balance sheet,
implying that there is a considerable stress of food insecurity in those localities. The argument made in this study
was that if sustainable policy measures are not taken in areas such as population pressure, environmental
protection, soil depletion and household income diversification, food shortage in the hilly villages will persist.
References
Alexander, M. 1977. Introduction to Soil Microbiology. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Ananda, J., Herath, G. (2003), Soil erosion in developing countries: a socio- economic appraisal, in: Journal of
Environmental Management, 68, pp. 343-353 Beyene D., 1987. Effect of liming and nitrogen and phosphorus
fertilization on grain yield of Barley. Ethiopian journal of Agricultural Sciences 9: 1-3.
FAO (1994), Land Degradation in South Asia: Its severity causes and effects upon the people. Rom: Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO World Soil Resources Report 78).
Federal Democratic of Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency (CSA). 2006. Agricultural Sample Survey 2005/06.
vol.1, Statistical Bulletin 417, Addis Ababa.
Holden and Shiferaw ,B.,2004. Land degradation, drought and food security in a less- favoured area in the
Ethiopian highlands: a bio-economic model with market imperfections. Agricultural Economics 30 (1), 31-49.
Jackson. F., 1969. “The Economy of Gamu Highlands”, Geographical Megazine 1969, 41(2) 16-24.
Kerr, J. (1998), The Economics of Soil Degradation: From National Policy to Farmers’ Fields, in: Penning de Vries,
F.W.T, Agus, F., Kerr, J.(eds.), Soil erosion at multiple scales. Principles and Methods for Assessing Causes and
Impacts, Washington D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute, p. 21-38.
Lal, R., 1994. Soil Erosion by Wind and Water: Problem and prospects “In: R. Lal (ed). Soil Erosion Research
Methods (2nd ed.), Ankey Lowa..
Lemeneh,M., Karltun,E, et al., 2005.Assessing soil chemical and physical property responses to deforestation and
subsequent cultivation in smallholders farming system in Ethipiopia. Agricultural Ecosystems and Environment
105 (1-2), 373-386.
Sonneveld, B.G.J.S., Keyzer, M.A., 2003. Land use pressure: Soil Conservation concerns and opportunities for
Ethiopia. Land Degradation and Development. 14(1), 5-23.
Tadesse, G., 2001. Land Degradation: a challenge to Ethiopia. Environmental Management. 27(6), 815-826.
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Vol 2, No.4, 2012
Wischmeier, W. H. and Smith, D. D., 1978: Predicting RainfallErosion Losses -A Guide to Conservation
Planning. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook No. 537. pp. 58 .
Table 1. Total food available for consumption at household level
Village Source of food available (%) Total net food in kilogram
Own production purchase food for work
Dallo 62.8 20.9 16.3 94080
Damoze 62.5 24.3 13.2 54240
Lante 13.4 86.6 214620
total 33.5 60.3 6 .2 362940
Source: Author`s field work
Table 2. Average Net Food Available for Consumption (2010/11)
Mean total Mean total Daily per capita food available in calories per individual
Village kg/ Kcal/
Household/ household/ Mean percent minimum maximum SD CV
year year of MRA
Dallo 1039 3927.4 1112 53 509.4 1939.3 358.1 32.2
Damoze 895 3482.9 1665 79.3 624.9 5488.6 1208.4 72.6
Lante 1774 7174.5 2560 121.9 752.3 5729.7 1149.5 44.9
Average 1236 4861.6 1785.6 85 509.4 5729.7 1138.9 63.8
Source: Author`s field work
Note: SD, stands for standard deviation and MRA, for minimum required allotment, while CV, for coefficient of
variation
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Vol 2, No.4, 2012
Table 3. Result of multiple regression analysis
Independent Variables Betta(B) t significance
Chemical fertilizer use -0.013 0.198 0.843
Education of household head 0.176 3.218 0.001
Family size 0.019 -0.343 0.732
Farm credit -0.22 -0.467 0.641
Farm oxen 0.170 2.288 0.023
Farm size 0.034 0.692 0.530
Fertility of farmland 0.164 3.406 0.001
Size of crop harvest -0.658 -8.005 0.000
Size of livestock 0.178 2.171 0.031
Off-farm activities 0.040 0.678 0.499
Improved seed 0.194 3.255 0.001
Constant 1.575
R 0.742
R square 0.550
Adjusted R square 0.522
F change 19.481
Source: Author’s field work
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7. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol 2, No.4, 2012
Fig. 1: Location Map of the Western Hills of Lake Abaya, Ethiopia
58
60
50
Level of Concentration
41.5
40
31.5
30
20
15
10
3.2 3.6
0.34 1
0
Organic matter Potassium Phosporus CEC
Soil Nutrient
Homestead Outfield
Fig. 2: Concentration of Soil Nutrients between farms
47
8. This academic article was published by The International Institute for Science,
Technology and Education (IISTE). The IISTE is a pioneer in the Open Access
Publishing service based in the U.S. and Europe. The aim of the institute is
Accelerating Global Knowledge Sharing.
More information about the publisher can be found in the IISTE’s homepage:
http://www.iiste.org
The IISTE is currently hosting more than 30 peer-reviewed academic journals and
collaborating with academic institutions around the world. Prospective authors of
IISTE journals can find the submission instruction on the following page:
http://www.iiste.org/Journals/
The IISTE editorial team promises to the review and publish all the qualified
submissions in a fast manner. All the journals articles are available online to the
readers all over the world without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than
those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. Printed version of the
journals is also available upon request of readers and authors.
IISTE Knowledge Sharing Partners
EBSCO, Index Copernicus, Ulrich's Periodicals Directory, JournalTOCS, PKP Open
Archives Harvester, Bielefeld Academic Search Engine, Elektronische
Zeitschriftenbibliothek EZB, Open J-Gate, OCLC WorldCat, Universe Digtial
Library , NewJour, Google Scholar