The Application of Contemplative Practice in Personal, Interpersonal and Professional Leadership Development

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The application of contemplative practice in Personal, Interpersonal and
Professional Leadership Development
by Marikie Hersey
ARTICLE
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Masters in the
Philosophy in Personal and Professional Leadership Development in
HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
in the
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
Study leader: Prof. DPJ Smith
MAY 2007

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THE APPLICATION OF CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICE IN PERSONAL,
INTERPERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT
“Contemplative prayer is the world in which . . . our private, self-made worlds come to an
end; a new world appears within and around us and the impossible becomes an everyday
experience. Yet the world that prayer reveals is barely noticeable in the ordinary course of
events.” Father Thomas Keating from Open Mind, Open Heart (2007)
ABSTRACT
Personal, Interpersonal and Professional Leadership (PiPL) considers the essence of
leadership as progressively cultivating higher levels of self and potential optimisation,
resulting in authentic self-expression which will add value to self and others (Smith,
2007a). Contemplative practices are technologies of mind that cultivate eudemonic
wellbeing and optimal of potential through transformation of mind states. This research
project explored the field of contemplative practices to determine an application within the
terrain of PiPL. The research concludes that contemplative practice promote
enhancement in all life domains and has a potential value for PiPL and PiPL
practitioners.
Persoonlike, Interpersoonlike and Professionele Leierskap ( PiPL) beskou die essensie
van leierskap as die progressiewe kultivering van die self en die optimatisering van
potensiaal, wat waarde sal toevoeg aan outentieke self-ekspressie (Smith, 2007a).
Reflekterende praktyke as tegnologie van die verstand bevorder eudainomiese welvaart
en optimalisering van potensiaal deur transformasie van gedagte patrone. Hierdie
navorsingsprojek het die veld van reflekterende praktyke bestudeer om te bepaal wat die
implikasies vir die speelveld van PiPL is. Die navorsing bevestig dat reflekterende
praktyke alle lewensdimensies bevoordeel en ‘n potensiele waarde inhou vir PIPL sowel
as vir PiPL praktisyns.

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ORIENTATION
Background
Context
A large variety of literature exists about leadership development providing theories and
concepts about cultivating leadership qualities and personal transformation. Within the
Personal, Interpersonal and Professional Leadership ( PiPL) terrain various frameworks
and models have been developed by Smith (2007a). These are supported by the
research of acknowledged experts in fields of
 Psychology
 Anthropology
 Education
 Human movement studies
 Physics
 Self development experts, such as Cashman, Covey, Goleman, Zohar & Marshall
and McGraw.
Within PIPL the active and willing cultivation of the human life domain potential is the
ultimate practice of leadership, thus ensuring the individual adds value to self and others
(Smith, 2007a). Despite an abundance of literature on the subject of personal growth, the
road to personal transformation appears to be out of reach of most individuals, or
obscured in some mystery, the domain of the mystics, experts and academia or simply
too expensive to embark on with prices ranging up to R 5,000 for weekend workshops.
Increased interest in contemplative practice by the scientific community and
academia
Currently there is a rising interest in the subject of human development by neurosciences,
consciousness researchers and health industries. The field of technologies of mind,
including contemplative practice, is of particular interest due to recent scientifically
validated measured impact thereof on physical brain structures and physical health

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indicators as prediced in the 1994 Psychology Today article, “Desperately Seeking
Spirituality” (Taylor, 1994).
The number of studies on mindfulness or meditation published in scientific journals from
1990 to 2004 increased fivefold. Between 1979 and 2005 over 16,000 medical patients
completed the mindfulness based stress response program at the Stress Reduction Clinic
at UMass Medical Centre (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). Within the Mind and Life Institute “The
Cultivating Emotional Balance Program” is a research project that teaches and evaluates
the impact of meditation combined with emotional regulation strategies (Mind and Life
Institute, 2006). Some 10 million Americans say they practice some form of meditation
(Ellison, 2006).
The research problem, objective and articulation
Research problem
The field of contemplative practice and potential application for leadership development is
relatively unexplored within the PIPL terrain as well as leadership development in general.
Initial research revealed that the contemplative literature contains confusing information.
Only a few authors, such as Budilovsky and Adamson (2003), expand on various
theories, practices, approaches and concepts in the field, both from a spiritual tradition as
well as scientific body of knowledge. This might explain why contemplative practice is not
yet developed as part of leadership theory and practice.
Research objective
The main aim of this research is to explore contemplative practices to discover and clarify
the essential nature, typology of approaches and contributions for application within
PiPL through addressing the following research questions:
 What is contemplative practice?
 What are main approaches in contemplative practice?

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 What is the purpose and application of contemplative practice?
 What are the benefits of contemplative practice as indicated by contemplative
practitioners as well as scientific research?
 Are there any criticisms or negative side-effects related to contemplative practice?
 Based on the above, what are the implications of contemplative practice for the field of
PiPL?
The secondary objective is to provide more clarity in the field of and therefore contribute
towards the body of knowledge for the purpose of facilitating human development.
Motivation for the research
PiPL continues to grow in knowledge and understanding of new theories and practices
that contribute towards optimizing human existence (Smith, 2007a). With the strong
emphasis on spiritual mastery with the PiPL field, the emerging interest in contemplative
practice, a fundamental spiritual practice and technology of mind, cannot be ignored.
This research could contribute towards elucidating contemplative practice as a potential
field of study through clarification of the concept, approaches, purpose and potential
benefits.
Paradigmatic perspective and scope
The paradigmatic perspective that will be applied in this research is the Personal,
Interpersonal and Professional Leadership (PiPL) perspective as developed by Smith
(2007b).
The scope of this research will focus on gaining more understanding of contemplative
practice from an intellectual and knowledge perspective, and exclude details of practical
application. The new interest in contemplative practice will be investigated in the context
of the PiPL terrain and framework.

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Concept clarification
Personal, Interpersonal and Professional Leadership (PiPL)
According to Smith (2007a), founder of Personal, Interpersonal and Professional
Leadership ( PiPL), PiPL confirms the potential and ability of each human being to excel
and to succeed. The PIPL focus is on three main areas of leadership development:
credible leadership (self-mastery under personal leadership), servant leadership
(relationship mastery under interpersonal leadership) and competent leadership
(professional mastery under professional leadership) (Smith, 2007a). In terms of the PiPL
transformer model the dominant mind state of the individual affects the manner in
which that person interacts with reality, which will ultimately result in either positive or
negative consequences and experiences for the individual (Smith, 2007c).
Contemplative practice
Contemplative practices are technologies of mind consisting of skillful methods for
purposeful training and cultivating of the mind and heart (including thought patterns,
feelings and behaviors) and are applied in a structured and gradual manner over a period
of time with the aim of transforming dominant states of mind. This is done through self-
regulation of unproductive conditioned habits in thoughts, feelings and behaviour,
sustained attention increasing self-awareness as well as enhanced awareness in
unconscious mental processes (Eagar, 2003; Blackmore, 2004; Winkelman, 2000).
The desired outcomes of contemplative practices are eudemonic wellbeing, including
full spiritual awakening (referred to as “enlightenment”). Practices include yoga, Zen-
archery, mindful walking, insight meditation and contemplative prayer (Blackmore, 2004;
Budilovsky and Adamson, 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 2005; The Forum for Contemplative
Studies, 2006, Keating, 2007; Smith, 2007d).

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INITIAL LITERATURE SURVEY
What is contemplative practice?
Initial review of literature indicated a wide range of definitions, such as “…a means to
cultivate the mind and heart with the aim to pursuit inner happiness, truth and virtue from
the “inside” (Wallace, 2005). The Center for Contemplative Mind in Society (2006)
“consider various kinds of ritual and ceremony designed to create sacred space and
increase insight and awareness to be forms of contemplative practice”. The practice
allows for “knowing what is happening while it is happening, whatever it is. It is a state,
not an activity (Nairn, 1997)”. The state of panoramic awareness, called, Zen or Samadhi,
means a state of total involvement, a stable awareness (Trungpa, 1976:150).
Main approaches in contemplative practice
The Forum for Contemplative Studies (2006) define activities designed with the purpose
of creating sacred space and increase insight and awareness to be forms of
contemplative practice. Nairn (1997: 73) indicates that many different practices exist,
each with own purpose and application. There are different categories of approaches and
purpose in contemplative practice. For example, generative practices focus concentration
on cultivating particular qualities, such as compassion and kindness. Stability practices
focus on “quieting the mind and body in order to develop stillness and stability”
(Budilovsky and Adamson, 2003; Mahathera, 2006; The Center for Contemplative Mind in
Society, 2006: Nairn, 1998).
Application of contemplative practice
Initial literature reviews revealed application within various life domains, for example
 Spiritual domain: Cultivating of deeper wisdom, connection with the divine, increase
virtuous qualities such as compassion, and interior transformation (Nairn, 1998;
Contemplative Quakerism, 2006; Wallace, 2005; Smith, 2007d).
 Physical and healthcare: Application for pain relief, stress management and
improvement of the immune system functioning (Snyderman, 2005).

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 Emotional: enhancing emotional balance and dealing with disturbing emotions (Pert,
2000). Support treatment for clinical depression through Mindfulness Stress Reduction
Therapy (Mind and Life Institute, 2005). Prayer is used to enhance empathy (Karren,
Hafen et al, 2002: 448).
 Mental: Contemplative psychotherapy (The Forum for Contemplative Studies, 2006)
Mental balance and psychological health (Wallace, 2005).
Benefits
Practitioners report that the mind becomes settled, peaceful and tranquil. Contemplatives
gain “insight” into the state of their minds and as a result become more creative. Their
awareness and resilience is increased (Nairn, 1998; Budilovsky and Adamson, 2003).
They report increased eudemonic wellbeing (Wallace, 2005). It can affect the structure of
the brain through changing the pathways (neural networks) of the brain. Mental training
can enhance the portions of the brain that control emotions such as anxiety and anger. It
can also improve the immune system, and decrease clinical depression. Mindfulness
Based Cognitive Therapy contributes towards stress reduction. It also reduced physical
pain. (Snyderman, 2005). Contemplative practice enhances our ability to pay attention
(Arntz, Chasse and Vicente, 2005) and expand the experiences of the fullness of life
(Travis and Ryan, 2004: 185).
Misconceptions about contemplative practice
Relaxation practices are not considered contemplative practice (Mahathera, 2006;
Wallace, 2005). Contemplative practice can be practiced by non-religious people
(Budilovsky and Adamson, 2003; Arntz, Chasse and Vicente, 2005). Contemplative
practice can be applied outside a spiritual framework. For example, it has been effectively
applied in clinical depression (Snyderman, 2005; Pert, 2000).

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Potential implications for PiPL
A high level overview of literature indicates contemplative practices potentially hold an
important contribution for the PiPL terrain and leadership development as it focuses on
transforming ineffective mind-states. It also confirms the PiPL view that cultivating
spiritual leadership is the foundation for overall wellbeing. Furthermore, based on the
initial understanding of contemplative practice, it is clear that PiPL group facilitated or
individually facilitated interventions are included in the field of contemplative practice and
therefore PiPL could also potentially make a contribution towards the field of
contemplative practice.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research strategy
A non-empirical strategy using the interpretive philosophy was utilised for this research,
which aimed to understand the subjective reality of contemplative practice, in order to
make sense of and understand it in such a way that it is meaningful for PiPL (Saunders,
Lewis and Thornhill, uknown). The inductive approach was applied, where the data
gathered was investigated to discover more about contemplative practices. As the field of
contemplative practice is new to PiPL an exploratory study was followed where gradual
intelligence and information was gathered with the objective to seek new insights and
understanding within the terrain of PiPL (Sanders, Lewis and Thornhill, unknown,
Mouton, 2001).
Research methods
A literature review was performed on theories, data and research on contemplative
practice, both from a science (clinical, objective experience) as well as contemplative
practitioner (subjective experience) viewpoint, including
 DVD and Audio information
 Academic journals
 Popular magazines and newspapers
 Internet articles and electronic resources
 Books

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 Lectures by experts in the field
The information gathered was then synthesized in terms of the concept, nature,
approaches, impact and outcomes of contemplative practice. Thereafter the emerging
information was analysed against two PiPL models to determine its potential application
within the field of PiPL. The frameworks used were
 The PiPL life domains as per the Smith Transformer model (Smith, 2007c)
o Inner domains (spiritual, physical, mental, emotional)
o External domains (relationships, career, finance and ecology)
 The PiPL perspective (Smith, 2007a)
The amount of data gathered was considered sufficient once it started yielding consistent
information without adding new knowledge and insight into the research questions.
RESULTS
The results of the research reviewed will be presented as follows
 Limitations in research
 Conceptualising contemplative practice
 The importance of contemplative practice
 Approaches to contemplative practice
 Benefits of contemplative practice
 Potential contra-indication of contemplative practices (limitations in applications
and side-effects)
 Misconceptions about contemplative practice
Limitations in research
The data review covered 48 books, 4 lectures, 8 articles, 17 audio and visual media as
well as 39 internet articles. During the research of the data, it was discovered that there
are various meanings and interpretations and applications of the concept contemplative

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practice, yielding confusion in concepts such as meditation and mindfulness. Most
authors use the terms interchangeably, and the first task of the research project was to
focus on characteristics and application of practices to improve understanding of the
concept contemplative practice and extract a reliable typology.
Secondly, literature was biased in favour of contemplative practices, including current
scientific research often supported by contemplative practitioners and their organizations.
Some information was uncovered indicating potential side-effects of contemplative
practices as well as limitations in application. However it was insufficient data for the
purpose of this project (Baars, 2005; Eagar, Hanna, Havens, Hubbard and Tart 2002,
2003; Wikipedia, 2006; Winkelman, 2000). Another research concern was the implication
of the majority of literature that a “one solution fits all”.
From a scientific perspective this could indicate a skewed result with over-optimistic views
of the potential application for personal growth and development and further research
would have to be done to investigate this. However, this is not the scope of this project
which is mainly exploratory in nature, and therefore only mention is made of this bias for
future researchers and research projects.
Conceptualising contemplative practice
Contemplative practices are technologies of mind. It is considered “technology” as
practices are structured processes and require technical skill. In terms of contemplatives,
a “scientific method” developed over centuries which was passed down reliably through
written and oral instruction with stages in practice clearly identifiable through reporting of
experiences by students (Norbu, Sharmapa, Nairn). Contemplative practices focus on
working skillfully with the mind; cultivating the mind (Eagar et al, 2002; Nairn:1997;
Wallace, 2005).
The main aim of contemplative practice is to achieve personal transformation: The Center
for Contemplative Mind in Society, 2006 considers contemplative practice not only
limited to spiritual or cultural activity, but “a method for developing concentration and
deeper understanding, in particular as a means of intellectual and pedagogic revitalisation
and change (The Center for Contemplative Mind in Society, 2006)”.

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“Contemplative practices increase awareness of living reactively from prior conditioning,
and change our mental constructions of the world (Contemplative Quakerism, 2006)”.
Contemplative practices strive towards personal transformation through focusing on
transformation of unproductive mindsets. “A contemplative is someone who has made
the choice to modify her life (Ellison, 2006)”.
“Contemplative practices originated as formal practices within cultural, ritual and spiritual
practices, however currently there is also a strong secular approach. Contemplative
practices therefore also include a secular component (Nairn, 2006; The Center for
Contemplative Mind in Society; 2006, Wallace, 2005: Mahathera, 2006).” Contemplative
activities include mindful practices, rituals and ceremonies, contemplative prayer and
yoga (Mahathera, 2006; Contemplative Quakerism, 2006; Nairn, 2006).
The following are the key attributes of contemplative practice that emerged from literature
as technology of mind:
 skillful method and practice
 gradual processes over a period of time;
 purposeful training or cultivating of the mind and heart which includes thoughts,
feelings and behaviour;
 with the intent to transform dominant states of mind (mindset and attitude).
The desired outcome of contemplative practices is eudemonic wellbeing, including full
spiritual awakening (referred to as “enlightenment” or personal liberation).
Based then on the research, the difference between an ordinary activity, such as walking,
and a contemplative practice, such as mindful walking, is based on intent and purpose to
transform a mind state.

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The importance of contemplative practice – reasons for embarking on
contemplative practice
Literature indicated underdevelopment in the mental domain, in particular limitations in
attention span, poor awareness of the “inner” world and disconnected link between the
inner landscape and external reality, as being primary reasons for embarking on
contemplative practice. According to Dispenza (Arntz et al, 2005) the average person
looses his attention span every six to ten seconds. Research indicates that the average
person’s attention is on what they are busy with only 30% of the time, and contemplative
practices are investigated as methods for people to realise this and bring their minds
more under control (Sapa-AP, 2007).
According to experts on contemplative practice, people who are weak in paying attention
are also easily distracted by disturbing events, thoughts and emotions and therefore not
optimising their emotional life domain. Literature also indicates individuals who lack
contemplative skills have poor self-awareness and live a life mostly from limiting
conditioned habits of thought, feelings and behaviours, unaware of their potential
(Gampopa,1994; Nairn, 1998; Travis & Ryan, 2006; Arntz, Chasse and Vicente, 2005;
Smith, 2006). According to Koch (2004:206) it is a fact that large parts of people’s lives
are lived without being conscious or thinking about it through the aspect of self which is
often referred to as the non-conscious (for example, driving a car, walking ,breathing).
Likewise, Wallace (2005) points out that poor skills of self-monitoring (also called meta-
cognition) is damaging to a person’s integration. Since most people live mostly thinking
about the past or the future, they are out of touch with the present moment and the
opportunities it present (Tolle,1999; Tolle, 2006). Authors such as Goswami (Arntz et al,
2005) emphasize that, without contemplative practice, non-ordinary state of higher
consciousness cannot be reached and thus the essential nature of mind will stay
obscured to most people as their attention is focused on the external world of senses. A
leading Tibetan lama, Sharmapa (2006) calls a state of mind where self-awareness is
lacking as a “dull” mind. Such a mind is the opposite to the self-reflective, self-aware

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aspect of consciousness: an enlightened, awakened mind or “higher spiritual mind” as it is
coined by Smith (2007d).
Purpose of contemplative practices
The main purpose of contemplative practice is to transform unproductive, bounded
(limited) mindstates into productive, boundless states of being (in the world). When the
mind is calmed, the contemplative “discovers” awareness, a previously hidden aspect of
consciousness. “Through contemplative practice one finds that awareness is like a
spotlight that shines onto the landscape of the mind” (Eagar, 2003; Baars, 2005;
Sharmapa, 2006; Mahathera, 2006; Odier, 2004; Blackmore, 2004). Changes in these
mind states are used to develop the spiritual life. Others use it for cultivating the
emotional domain, for examples cultivating coherent emotions (love, empathy) or
management of stress. Some practitioners use it to support physical problems, for
example enhance pain management and improve the immune system or enhance
physical performance, such as athletic skill.
Approaches in contemplative practices
A critical part of the research was to obtain more clarity on understanding the different
types of practices. The research revealed hundreds of different practices (Gampopa,
1994; Nairn, 1998; Newberg, 2003; Sharmapa, 2006; Budilovsky and Adamson, 2003;
Wallace, 2005). The Tree of Contemplative Practice (Appendix A) provides a high level
overview of such variety. During this project categories emerged based on the main
applications and purpose of the contemplative practices. These categories were reviewed
against ancient mind technologies developed by the many Buddhist Schools whose
reputable mind training systems are over 2,500 years old (Ellison: 2006, Wallace: 2005).
For the purpose of this report, the following typology was used:
 Cognitive practices
 Stability practices
 Insight practices
 Generative practices
 Absorption practices

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 Whole-system technologies of mind
Cognitive practices
Research showed that cognitive practices, such as analytical and structured questioning ,
are used to enhance mental reasoning, logic and the process of learning. The desired
outcome is enhanced cognitive skills which will support other contemplative practices.
Included are analytical meditation, Jewish Contemplative Practice and
QuestionThinking™ (Komito, 1987; Krishnamurti, 1982; Gampopa, 1994; Hafen, Karren,
Smith and Frandsen, 2002; Geshe le Pende, 2006; Kline, 1999, Adams, 2004,
Contemplative Quakerism, 2006). Contemplatives highlighted that reasoning skills are
important for the contemplative practitioner to know what to actually contemplate on. The
difference between this and other analytical practices is that cognitive practice analysis is
independent and “free from reliance upon any authority of dogma, beliefs, science
or opinions of other persons (Krishnamurti, 1982)”.
Purpose of cognitive practices
The purpose is to enhance skills of logic and mental cognition and refute limiting beliefs
and concepts (Gampopa, 1994, Geshe le Pende, 2006, Kline, 1999, Adams, 2004). It is a
structured inquiry into particular questions and utilized to increase mental capacity,
intelligence and improve skills of perception. Examples of such inquiries are:
 Investigation of worldly concerns, such as desire for fame or fear of having a poor
reputation, and how these affect one’s state of mental and emotional wellbeing
 The benefits of cultivating altruism
 The nature of thought, mind, reality and the existence of self
 The nature of suffering, and the obstacles to happiness
 Limiting assumptions underlying current strategies for dealing with issues
Key benefits
 Self-realised and Independent understanding of the nature of reality, self and others

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 Increased skills of logical examination as well as improved philosophical and
intellectual skills
 Improved skill in learning
 Enhanced skills of recollection
Stability practice
Literature on contemplative practice concur that the foundation for all contemplative work
to be stability practices (Gampopa, 1994; Saron and Wallace, 2006; HH 17th
Karmapa,
2003; Nairn, 2006; Hope and Van Loon, 2005; Sharmapa, 2006; Arntz et al, 2005; Singer,
2005; Pliskin, 2005; Pert, 2000; Travis and Ryan, 2005). Without a stable mind, it would
be difficult to effectively practice guided imagery or insight training due to lack of focus
and concentration. Stability practices use support mechanisms such as focusing on
breath, sound, movement or special words to calm mental processes and train the mind
in increasing attention. “Tranquility is the condition where our mind has settled and is
happy to be present with whatever is happening (Nairn, 1998)”. Examples of stability
practices are shinay meditation, tai chi, yoga, zen archery, mindful walking, the Japanese
tea ceremony, biofeedback exercises and Transcendental Meditation™. Done with a
contemplative intent, gardening, bathing, painting and playing with children are also
effective (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 2006; Wild Divine
Website, 2006; The Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback quoted
on Psychotherapy,com, 2006).
Research emphasize daily integration practices to cultivate mental stability as habitual
skill through practices such as mindfulness, Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction
Therapy and Living in the Now (Tolle, 1999). These practices cultivate “mindfulness in all
actions, such as eating, working, driving and paying full attention in the moment (Tolle:
1999, Kabat-Zinn, 2005; Wallace, 2005).
Purpose
All stability practices have the same underlying purpose: to enable the mind to remain
peacefully and uninterruptedly in a stable state of one-pointed concentration over an

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extended period of time (Sharmapa, 2006; Center for Contemplative Mind in Society,
2006; Swami Rami, 2002). The main objectives are to cultivate:
 Mental concentration, one-pointed focus, attention and skills in concentration
 Mental and emotional stability
 Transforming of “dull” (non—attentive states of mind) to more alert, coherent brain
functioning
 Relaxation (Mahathera, 2006)
 Maintain psychological equilibrium, become more resilient and therefore able to
reduce stress and related medical conditions
 Improve brain functioning and skill
 Improved overall physical wellness
 Improve sense and experience of quality of life
Key benefits
 Development of a stable mind as such a mind is less disturbed by events, habitual
thoughts and emotions. “The practitioner experiences more clarity and this enables
more effective decision making and coping strategies with life (Nairn, 1998)”
 Enhanced ability to use left frontal lobe (executive seat of the brain)
 Improved concentration, ability to pay attention and increased willpower
 Inner sense of peace and tranquility and reduced stress
 Improved ability to deal with mental disease
 Enduring decreases in physical and psychological symptoms, including improved
immune function
Insight practice
“Insight practices focuses on introspection, looking into your mind and reporting what you
discover” (Wallace, 2005). It is a method where the contemplative observe her own
distractions and thought processes using practices developed such as Mindfulness Based
Cognitive Therapy and PiPL group and individual facilitation. Experts on insight practice
stress the point that it should be done under the guidance of a qualified and experience
mentor or facilitator, due to the fact that subconscious and previously repressed

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psychological material could arise which would required expert guidance or even
psychotherapy (Nairn, 1998; Mipha, 2003, Hope van Loon, 2005; Mahathera, 2006;
Prescott, 2000; Budilovsky and Adamson, 2003; Singer, 2005, Ellison, 2006, Smith,
2007c).
Daily integration practices include Mastering the Art of Observation (self-observation of
thoughts, emotions and behavior) (also called self-stalking) during daily activities to
sustain insight (Tolle, 1999; Adams, 2004, Nairn, 2006, Arntz et al, 2005).
Purpose
The purpose of insight meditation is an exploration and inquiry into the nature of self, the
direct experience of living each moment, and the potential for freedom from suffering
(Kabat-Zinn, 2005)”. This is done through focusing attention inward to determine the type
of thoughts, emotions and behavior you are producing. This self-monitoring (meta-
cognition) is critical in acquiring and maintaining complex types of behavior and in
adapting to change (Galin as quoted by Wallace, 2005: 295). Through observing
tendencies (patterns of behavior, thoughts, emotions) the actual process of self-stalking
starts interrupting the patterns therefore starting a process of releasing those
unproductive limiting patterns (Dr Joe Dispenza, quoted in Artnz et al, 2005).
Therefore the purpose of self-stalking is to:
 Perceive the patterns of mind and recognize when moods are triggered (positive and
negative moods)
 Through recognition and awareness, prevent and manage unproductive mind states
and moods more effectively
 Combining with mindfulness practices, the practitioner brings attention back into the
moment, and shift mental gears, e. g. through deliberate activities to distract the mind
into more productive mind states
 Observation of phenomena and relationship to the practitioner, learning to experience
the world directly, non-conceptually and non-judgmentally
 Learning willingness to experience all mind states and emotions, and not deny or
suppress unwanted and painful states

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 Developing courage to allow distressing moods, thought and sensations to come and
go without battling with them or repression
 Daily investigation into the nature of self, others and reality
Benefits
 Enhanced self-monitoring process, called meta-cognition (a vital skill in learning,
resilience and personal growth)
 Cultivation of wisdom: learning through direct perception thus giving rise to personal
understanding
 Familiarisation with inner states and insight into own thoughts and distraction and
workable perspective of our lives
 Personal transformation
 Enhanced emotional awareness
 Ability to stop unproductive tendencies of thoughts, feelings and behavior
 Recognition of triggers for depression and negative thinking (including critical,
judgmental thinking about self and others)
 Awareness aware of itself
 Enhanced self-worth and self-concept
 Empowerment and confidence in ability to cope with the world
 Altruistic mind with enhanced empathy and compassion
 Improved relationships
 Improved profession and career
Some literature hinted at potential negative consequence during insight practices, as
previously ignored disturbing emotions and thought patterns will surface (Nairn, 1998;
Sharmapa, 2006, Wikipedia, Eagar et al, 2002, WInkelman, 2000; Chodron, 1998).

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Generative practices
Generative practices use guided imagery, self-hypnosis, specific repetitive words, body
movements, ritual and ceremony, devotional prayer and other creative methods to obtain
particular goals of the practitioner (Warren, 1993; Winkelman, 2000; BBC, 2001; Gromie,
2006; Davidson, 2005; Khandro.Net Website, 2006; Hafen et al, 2002). “It remains a
radical notion in the West that benevolent states of mind such as concentration, kindness
and happiness can be developed with practice (Ellison, 2006)”.
Purpose
Practitioners use intentional methods to produce desired qualities, values, behavior and
events. For example, visualization techniques have been utilized effectively by athletes to
improve their performance (Artnz et al, 2005). The effectiveness of this approach is
confirmed with brain imaging techniques that show the same areas in the brain lighting
up for imagined or visualized objects versus perceiving the actual object (Newberg as
quoted in Arntz et al, 2005). From a magico-spiritual context, shamans have utilised this
as a therapy for healing and personal transformation (Winkelman, 2000: 223). These
practices also include daily integration methods (Kabat-Zin, 2005; The Secret; 2006;
Tolle, 1999; Prescott, 2000; Adams, 2004; Sharmapa, 2006).
Benefits
 Decreased symptoms of stress, such as enhanced immunity, reduced cortisol and
increased DHEA
 Enhanced psychophysiological coherence
 Generating a positive emotion makes it easier to sustain coherence for longer periods,
even during challenging situations, for example using compassion to deal with anger
 Increased energy and resilience
 Greater mental clarity for decision-making and creativity
 Transformed mind states

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 Changes in environment and events taking place in the practitioner’s life (reported by
practitioners)
 Increased spiritual connection
Absorption practices
Linking with the divine, the absolute - the ultimate contemplative practice is considered
the state called Samadhi, or resting in “the Divine” a state of intense concentration or
absorption of consciousness or ecstasy (Mahathera, 2006; Kongtrul, 2005). This state of
being is attainable by non-spiritual as well as spiritual people and considered to be the
“primordial state of pure and total presence” (Norbu and Lipman, 1986: 75) (Odier, 2004:
20). Most people access this through peak experiences, described as mystical and
blissful. It can be triggered through trance dance, moments of intense pain (such as
natural childbirth) or absorption in nature (Winkelman, 2000; Smith, 2007c; Odier, 2004;
Sharmapa, 2006; Keating; 2006)
Purpose
According to Zen Buddhism, Samadhi allows the meditator to overcome dualistic subject-
object awareness through unity with the object of meditation and therefore complete
absorption with loss of identity of the “self” and “anything else” outside of the “self”
(Encyclopedia Britannica, 2007; Suzuki, 1986). Absorption practice is directed at
cultivating the experience of the ultimate truth, peace, purity and highest bliss (Wallace,
2005). Practitioners use it to “rest evenly in non-discursive state free from conceptual
elaborations (Kongrul, 2005)”.
Benefits
 “Stable peace: mind resting within mind due to most excellent profound absorption
(Gampopa, 1994)”
 A form of attention which becomes "an oil lamp unmoved by the air; wherever the
awareness is directed, it is steady and sharply pointed (Sharmapa, 2006)”

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 “A state of being where all concepts of object, subject and any relationship between
these completely disappear. It is the ultimate bliss, the ultimate ecstasy (Mahathera,
2006)”
 The final stage is accompanied by full and total realization of one’s wholesome or
“divine” potential (Nairn, 1997)
Whole system mind technologies
Comprehensive whole-system mind technologies are structured applications of the
different categories of practices described above. Examples are the well-known Tibetan
system of Seven Point Mind Training, an ancient mind training practice where one’s
situations in everyday life is transformed into spiritual practice with the purpose of
cultivating the limitless potential of complete spiritual awakening (Nairn 2007, Kongtrul,
2005; Chodron, 1998). From the Torah is the Jewish Contemplative practice and mystical
Kabbala system with similar objectives (Pliskin, 2005). Eagar developed the Nine Gates
approach under the Apeiron Memeticon (Eagar, 2006). These systems provide roadmaps
for contemplatives, with application and benefits as described within the various
categories of contemplative practices.
Contra-indication of contemplative practice (limitations in applications and side-
effects)
Authors with long term experience in contemplative practice stress the importance of an
experienced and qualified mentor to address specific concerns listed about sub-conscious
and repressed material that surface especially during insight practices (Nairn, 2006;
Sharmapa, 2006; Smith, 2007c; Mind and Life Organisation, 2006). Potential negative
side-effects include experiences of the “dark night of the soul”, paranoia, psychological
distress, hallucinations, feelings of insanity and mental tiredness, all which require
guidance and support from an experienced mentor (Wikipedia, 2006).
There was insufficient information available to indicate research that countered the
beneficial aspects of contemplative practice. One author highlighted that contemplatives
are dismissive of scientific evidence that points to such negative research (Baars, 2005:

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20). The other constraint about scientific method and contemplative practice, is that
science can tell us a lot about the workings of the brain and the body during
contemplative practice, but very little about the subjective experience for the
contemplatives (Papineau and Selina, 2000:14). Therefore the problem of contemplative
practice is the subjective experience and describing such subjective experiences
adequately for scientific research and validation.
Critics of contemplatives accuse them of being too inwardly focused and thus avoiding
engagement with reality in a more influential manner and through that bring about social
change. Many Westerners find the Eastern contemplative technologies tedious and
overlaid with cultural issues, making it difficult to extract the essence of practice. There is
little research done on which methods would be appropriate for different temperaments
and cultures and there is a danger of “one solution fits all” as contemplative teachers only
teach their methods irrespective of the requirements or abilities of their students. Within
western context about 95% of contemplative students discontinue the practice within one
year (Eagar et al, 2002; Winkelman, 2000).
Misconceptions about contemplative practices
Experts in contemplative practices agree about various misconceptions held by the
general public. PiPL practitioners need to take cognizance of these should they attempt to
prescribe contemplation practices for personal growth facilitation:
 Relaxation practices are not considered contemplative practice (Mahathera: 2006,
Wallace: 2005)
 It can be applied outside a religious, spiritual or philosophical context (Budilovsky and
Adamson: 2003, Arntz et al: 2005). For example, it has been effectively used in
treatment of clinical depression (Snyderman: 2005, Pert,:2000)
 It is not about being “blissed out” or having no thoughts anymore. It is also not a quick
fix to life’s problems. It consists of precise methods with various applications with the

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ultimate objective awakening to full human potential (Sharmapa: 2006, Nairn, 2006,
Geshe La Pende:2006, Gampopa: 1994).
 It is not some pure mystical technique known to only a few gurus. There is no need to
isolate yourself from reality, or follow some rituals or embrace a radical new lifestyle.
It is practical, with a series of defined actions, that work on the physiology of the
person practices (Sears, 1999).
DISCUSSION: RELEVANCE OF CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICES FOR THE FIELD OF
PiPL
The results of the data gathered on this project is analysed against two important PiPL
frameworks to determine the potential application for leadership development in terms of
the PiPL field:
 The PiPL Transformer Model developed by Smith (2007c)
 The PiPL perspective (Smith, 2007a)
The PIPL transformer model developed by Smith
Smith (2007c) uses a transformer model as metaphor to explain how humans can
enhance or reduce their potential especially in dealing with external reality. This model
was inspired from a systems theory view of wellness, called the Wellness Energy System
(Travis and Ryan, 2004: xxix – xxxvi). In terms of this model, your “potential” which
consists of various internal and external life domains, impact on how you are able to cope
in a less or most optimal manner with the external realities.
Within this model, the experience of external reality and genetic inheritance provide the
input aspects of the model. Inner life domains (spiritual, physical, mental and emotional
domains) as well as external life domains (social, career, finance) are the transformer
aspect, considered the “potential” where individuals can transform the input and therefore
enhance or reduce the effect of the input aspects. The impact of transformation is
considered individual purpose and expression (influence) in life (called the output aspect).
Negative outputs reinforce a limiting mindset and result in unproductive mindstates for the
individual, creating a self-fulfilling downward spiral and ultimately the individual will not

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effectively utilizing her potential. Positive outputs result in positive reinforcement,
therefore promotes and supports optimizing potential.
An important aspect of the transformer model is the focus on the dominant mindset of the
individual. Smith, through creating awareness of the impact of more productive dominant
mindstates, aims to motivate individuals into cultivating positive and productive
mindstates and reach their purpose and potential.
The Smith House model is depicted below (Smith, 2007c:6)
OUTPUT
Purpose
Potential
INPUT
TRANSFORMER
Reality
Genetic
inheritance
POTENTIAL
Inner domains
External domains
Analysis of contemplative practice data in terms of PIPL transformer model
developed by Smith
Contemplative practices, as technologies of mind, aims to transform limiting mindstates
into productive ones, ultimately cultivating eudaimonic wellbeing. Therefore
contemplative practices focus on techniques for improving and optimizing the

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“transformer” aspect of the Smith Transformer Model. Under-development or problems
in spiritual, mental, emotional and physical domains motivate embarkation on the journey
of contemplative practice. Furthermore, the outputs of contemplative practice indicated
benefits in terms of improvement of inner and external life domains and therefore also the
output aspects of the model. Below these are analysed against the PiPL outputs for
wellbeing:
Inner life domains per the Smith Transformer Model (2007c)
Spiritual domain
 Reduced ego-centricity and increase realisation of the nature of the selfless self
 Experiencing states of being where all concepts of object, subject and any relationship
between these completely disappear: complete transcendence (non-dual awareness,
Advaita)
 Conscious awareness
 Insight, inspiration and a loving and compassionate approach to life
 Deep absorption in primordial wisdom or pure consciousness
Physical domain
 Improvement in over 150 disorders (biofeedback)
 Enhanced immune system
 Improved muscle control and stamina
 Slowing down of ageing
 Physical benefits, such as reduced blood pressure, improved eicosanoid functioning
Mental domain
 Enhanced ability to use front lobe (executive seat of the brain) resulting in increased
concentration, sharper intellect, alertness and precision of thought
 Improved ability to deal with mental disease
 Increased coherence in brain functioning and thus more effective brain functioning
 Greater creativity and ability to focus
 Mental stability – a mind that is no longer carried away by thoughts and emotions
Emotional domain
 Reduced anxiety and distress

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 Enhanced emotional awareness and improve emotional management, including
extreme emotions such as anger
 Reduce depression and prevents relapses
 Development of greater empathy and positive emotions
 Inner sense of peace and tranquility
External life domains
Relationship domain
 Fulfilling relationships
 More appreciation and love towards family and friends
 Greater tolerance and patience, harmony and happiness
 Deeper appreciation of self and others
 More authenticity in relationships
Career domain
 Ability to make better decisions and solve problems faster
 More job satisfaction and productivity
 More efficiency in learning new concepts, improved academic achievement, better
grades
 Ability to develop more effective leadership
 More workable perspective of personal life, career and purpose
Finance domain
 Lower medical costs and hospitalisation
 Reduced materialistic outlook and need to acquire material goods for personal
happiness.
 Increased generosity and support of others
 Enhanced awareness of value of money and appreciation for material goods
Ecology
 Reduced alcohol use, drug use and smoking
 Deep insights into the nature and issues of fundamental human existence
 Reduced reactivity to life

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 Awareness of interconnectedness of mental, sensory and external phenomena
 Broader comprehension of role in society
Other benefits for PiPL areas of interest
 Personal insight
 Increased strength in self-concept
 Increased self-knowledge and personal awareness
 Self-actualisation
 Clarity of sources of frustration, discontent and suffering
 Enhanced resilience
 Value in attending to thoughts, emotions, impulses, awareness itself as well as
sensations where a new dimension of being is discovered
 Change habitual patterns that are unproductive to our growth
 Radical personal transformation
 Personal empowerment and confidence in participation in own healing process
Conclusion on analysis of contemplative practices in terms of PiPL Transformer
Model
The analysis of results of research on benefits derived from contemplative practice and
ultimately transformation in mindstates, indicates that benefits gained through
contemplative practices align with the Smith Transformer model (Smith, 2006).
The PIPL Perspective and contemplative practice
Perspective means the lenses through which you view the world or particular
objects/ideas. The importance of understanding the perspective of a field of study is that it
will highlight particular aspects that the particular study will include as well as provide
background to that which will be excluded (Smith, 2007a).
The understanding of contemplative practice within the PiPL perspective will provide
information to determine the potential application within the PiPL field of leadership

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development. Below is a table comparing the PiPL perspective and results of research
and potential application of contemplative practice:
Table 1 Contemplative practice and the PiPL perspective
PiPL Perspective (Smith, 2007a) Contemplative contribution towards
PiPL and leadership development
“ PiPL is the study of the awareness of
the fundamental problems facing
mankind in the context of our personal
realm, our relationships with people and
our professional environment.” (Smith,
D:2007a). PiPL strives to discover the
essence of leadership.”
.
Contemplative practice cultivate awareness
of self, others, the fundamental problems
facing mankind. Through cognitive and
insight practices, contemplatives obtain
direct insight into the fundamental nature of
self, others and reality. The purpose is an
exploration and inquiry into the nature of
self, the direct experience of living each
moment, and the potential for freedom from
suffering (Kabat-Zinn, 2005).
“An important difference of PiPL is the
contribution towards meaningful human
existence. This will be achieved through
creating awareness on values and
purpose, finding a balance between living
one’s values and fulfilling one’s purpose/”
The aim of contemplative practice is to
cultivate eudaimonic wellbeing.
“Eudaimonmic wellbeing is the integrated
pursuit of inner happiness, truth and virtue, a
growing sense of fulfillment not contingent
upon pleasant things happening to you.
“Meditation means to cultivate the mind and
heart with the aim to pursuit inner happiness,
truth and virtue from the “inside” (Wallace,
2005).
“Lastly, it also wants to contribute towards The ultimate goal of contemplative practice

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progressively higher levels of self/potential
realisation in alignment with credible
leadership, servant leadership and
competent leadership.”
is the realisation and cultivation of the full
potential of the human being (Winkelman,
2000).
“As quoted from Smith (2007a) the aim
of the PiPL focus is on contribution
towards authentic self-expression that
adds value to others and thereby leaving
a legacy.”
Through contemplative practice the
authentic self naturally emerges and is
expressed (Nairn, 2006).
“ PiPL starts with looking at society and
existence, and then place theory thereon.
This perspective studies phenomenology
(what is manifesting?), describes the
reality of mankind today, and study the
essence of human experience. A holistic
view of a person is applied with the PiPL
structured leadership development
approach to assist in helping people find a
more meaningful existence (Smith,
D:2007a).
Insight practice investigate the nature of self,
other and reality through direct perception
and experience, without only reliance on
theory and knowledge. Through the
understanding of self, others and reality a
profound understanding of connection and
holistic view of the world emerges (Nairn,
1998).
PURPOSE OF PiPL PURPOSE OF CONTEMPLATIVE
PRACTICE
“Thus the essence of the ultimate purpose
of PiPL is to study the fundamental
problems facing mankind, and contribute
Contemplative practice aims not only to
understanding the nature of suffering and
issues facing humanity, but how to develop
productive strategies for dealing with it, as

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towards meaningful human existence.” well as transcend it (Geshe Pende, 2006).
Some of the greatest problems in the
individual and society have to do with the
essence of our existence in our spiritual,
physical, emotional, mental and career
realms. Thus, an integrated leadership
approach would contribute towards those
realms to assist a person in realising
potential.
Contemplative practice is a holistic approach
to address not only the problems that face
people, but also to improve and cultivate
their potential (Sharmapa, 2006).
The PiPL Pyramid of Leadership and
Influence has developed around the
acknowledgement that, because the
human being is an integrated and
synergistic being (holism); all these
aspects of the person affect each other.
The PiPL Pyramid thus reflects a
constructive approach towards leadership
development, indicating that the
foundation of personal leadership will
assist in building the foundation for
interpersonal leadership, which will form
the next foundation, which is for
professional leadership.
Contemplative practice investigations by
scientists reveal a strong correlation
between personal mastery and personal
wellbeing, relationships and engagement
with reality (Singer, 2005).
The PiPL Pyramid reflects the basis of Contemplative practices are based on

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our reality frameworks that acknowledge the
importance in understanding the interrelation
of the nature of self, relationship to others
and the environment, however there are
different models to reflect their interpretation
of reality, such as the Kalachacra (Wheel of
Time) (Wikipedia, 2006).
PiPL also focuses on the inside-out
leadership approach of authors such as
Covey as well as Kevin Cashman.
Cashman is clear from his years of
research and experience around
leadership, that leadership that creates
sustainable value for the self and others,
is only possible through an inside-out
approach where the person authentically
will express himself in terms of various
domains in his life. This is a different
approach towards traditional leadership,
where the development of leadership
qualities are often at the cost of society or
other people, and has shown lately the
life-destroying effects (corporate failure,
destruction to the environment, destroying
old cultures).
Refer to the comment above.
PiPL propagates a principle centered, All contemplative practice focuses on

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character centred, inside-out approach
to change and leadership.
internal change which would result in
personal transformation. Such personal
transformation will ultimately result in
changes in the reality experienced by that
individual as they respond more effectively
to challenges and opportunities
(Transcendental Meditation official website,
2006).
From the PiPL perspective there are
universal laws and principles, which
governs our natural and social existence.
Thus PiPL seeks to find, study and apply
these laws and principles to enhance
human existence and increase meaning in
life. Examples of these are service,
excellence, human dignity and honesty.
Contemplative practitioners focus on
understanding the natural laws that make up
their existence, others and reality. Through
personal realisation of these, contemplatives
not only find more meaning in life, but
naturally become motivated to contribute
towards the lives of others (Winkelman,
2000).
For the personal leadership perspective,
the PiPL states that change starts with
the individual, as the individual is the
only person with control over and who can
exert control over himself/herself.
Therefore change and development starts
with yourself, your attitudes and your
comfort zones, and an increasing
responsibility (ability and willingness to
respond).
Contemplative practice focuses on individual
growth and change, and acknowledges that
only through each individual learning to work
skilfully with her mind, changes can occur
that would improve how the practitioner
engages with the world (Sharmapa, 2006).

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This increased personal mastery is the
foundation for interaction with people. Life-
enhancing and life-enriching relationships
with other people depend on your degree
of personal mastery. Our improved
relationship with ourselves forms the
basis of improved relationships with
others.
Contemplatives focus on personal mastery.
A consequence of contemplative practice is
improved relationships and natural
emergence of altruism, compassion,
empathy and benevolent mindstates that
improve relationship with self, others and the
environment (Transcendental Meditation
Official Website, 2006)
Self-transcendence is first before self-
actualising. Thus altruism, serving and
caring are ultimate virtues in society, and
interpersonal relationships will focus on
life-enhancing activities. Our leadership
self-expression will enrich the lives of
others.
The ultimate goal of contemplative practice
is spiritual enlightenment, which results in a
worldview that focuses on altruism,
benevolence, kindness and service to others
through gradual removal of ego-centric
tendencies (Winkelman, 2000).
Leadership from the PiPL perspective
combines integrity, character and
positive attitudes with professional
competencies. These are applicable to
all people; irrespective of the job or
function they perform. It is based on the
concept of spiritual fulfilment at work,
relationship building, teamwork, mutual
trust, appreciation, empathetic listening,
Contemplative practitioners report enhanced
satisfaction with relationships, profession
and financial status (Transcendental
Meditation Official Website, 2006).

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commitment towards common vision, win-
win synergy, conflict resolution,
professional effectiveness and other
related principles and values.
Examples of areas where PiPL
contribute towards providing more
meaningful human existence are:
 Resilience in life
 Personal local of control
 Self-efficacy (believing you can)
 Stress-management
 Personal physical health
Examples of how the PiPL perspective
can be used in dealing with the
problems of human existence.
Stressful lifestyle: purpose mastery
and living your true north, governing
values, balance awareness and
mastery.
Meaningless life: purpose mastery,
critical choices, connecting to the inner
core (spiritual domain), self-
transcendence
Contemplative practice outcomes include
 Resilience
 Enhanced personal health and
wellness
 Contribution towards stress
management
 Significant improvement in mental
issues, such as depression and
mental disorders
 Pain management
 Personal concept and self-esteem
 Meaning and purpose
 Spiritual growth
 Eudaimonic happiness
(Mind and Life Institute, 2006).

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Conclusion: contribution of contemplative practice in leadership development in
term of the PiPL perspective
Contemplative practices cultivate awareness of self, others and the fundamental
problems facing mankind. Through cognitive and insight practices, contemplatives gain
direct insight into the fundamental nature of self, others and reality. The aim of
contemplative practice is to cultivate eudemonic wellbeing and the realisation and
cultivation of the full potential of the human being. Through contemplative practice the
authentic self naturally emerges and is expressed. Insight practices investigate the nature
of self, others and reality through direct perception and experience. Through the
understanding of self, others and reality a profound understanding of connection and
holistic view of the world emerges. Contemplative practice promotes understanding of the
nature of suffering and issues facing humanity, as well as how to develop productive
strategies for dealing with it.
Contemplative practice is a holistic approach to address not only the problems that face
people, but also to improve and cultivate their potential. Investigations by scientists into
contemplative practice reveal a strong correlation between personal mastery and
personal wellbeing, relationships and engagement with reality (Singer, 2005).
Contemplative practice does not emphasize leadership per se and most contemplative
practitioners do not embark on practice because of the need to be famous or leaders in
their field. However, through the practice they become more valuable members of society
and increase their sphere of influence.

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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Potential implications for PIPL
Contemplative practice perspectives and objectives are supportive of the PiPL terrain in
particular enhanced personal mastery, relationships mastery and professional mastery.
As with PiPL, contemplative practices are applied to develop the highest potential in
various life domains of the individual, with the ultimate objective being spiritual realisation.
Contemplative practices intentionally bring about productive transformation in dominant
mind states and therefore has practical implications within the Smith Transformer Model.
“To realize our full potential, we must tame our minds. And the good news is that we can
use the mind to tame itself. We need to develop new mental habits” (Sharmapa, 2006)”.
Based on the results of this research, contemplative practice has a valuable role to play in
the practical implementation and cultivation of the principles eschewed by PiPL.
Contemplative practice is part of the practice aspect of leadership. Finally, it is clear that
PiPL facilitated processes constitute contemplative practice, especially in terms of
cognitive and insight practices.
Recommended areas for further research and investigation
The contemplative practice taxonomy requires additional enhancement to be utilised as
practical framework for PiPL practitioner toolkits. The fields of consciousness,
neuroscience and technologies of mind have value to offer in term of human development
and scope within PiPL. PiPL practitioners can also contribute with confidence within
these fields.
In terms of the limitations of application of contemplative practice as well as potential
side-effects and negative experiences, there is a requirement for more validated scientific
research. For example,
 Which practices would be more suitable for particular temperaments and personal
capacity?.

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 Which techniques are most effective?
 What is the essence of the techniques and how can we practically implement these in
modern day busy lifestyle without philosophical and spiritual trappings?
 What are the side-effects and myths not yet explored in research?
 How can we balance subjective reporting versus scientific objective research?
“At the beginning of the 21st century humanity is poised for a revolution in our
understanding of consciousness, as the first-person modes of inquiry of the contemplative
traditions of the world are integrated with the third-person methods of modern science.”
(The Santa Barbara Institute, 2006)

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APPENDIX A: TREE OF CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICES

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APPENDIX B: TABLE OF BENEFITS LISTED AGAINST PIPL TRANSFORMER MODEL LIFE DOMAINS
Research on benefits/outcomes Author
Spiritual – Smith (2007c)
It remains a radical notion in the West that benevolent states of mind such as
compassion, kindness and happiness can be developed with practice
Wallace, 2005
Such adepts are the Lance Armstrongs of meditation, says Davidson, whose pioneering
brain scans of monks provide tantalizing evidence that emotions like love and
compassion are in fact skills—and can be trained to a dramatic degree. Studies also
suggest that the monastic life is not a requirement; even brief, regular meditation sessions
can yield substantial benefits.
Ellison, 2006
Urging seekers of happiness to not only shake off egoism but to understand the
amorphous nature of the ego itself remains a subversive idea in the West, even though
some leading neuroscientists have come to the same conclusion. Wolf Singer, director of
the Max Planck Institute in Frankfurt, Germany, for instance, describes the brain as
Singer, 2005

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lacking any decision-making "coherence center." It's like an orchestra without a conductor
Transcendence consciousness is a state of consciousness outside of the ordinary
waking, dreaming and deep sleep. Research has confirmed the reality of Transcended
Consciousness.
TM website,
2006
Long term meditators are able to produce conscious awareness: A coherent, metastable
state of a highly distributed, dynamical system characterized by synchronization of
oscillatory activity.
Segal, 2005
Physical (Smith, 2007c)
Research on transcendental meditation indicates benefits, such as
 Meditation can be an effective treatment for ADHA (ABC News, Washington, 6 March
2006)
 TM twice a day improves cardio vascular health (Prevention Magazine, 12 Sept 2005)
 Enhanced creativity
 Reduction of death rates by nearly a quarter (The Guardian, 2 May 2005)
Lowered blood pressure through relaxation of blood vessels (Medical College of Georgia)
Transcendental
Meditation
Website, 2006

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A quantitative review of 198 studies found that the Transcendental Meditation program is
the most effective means of preventing and treating drug and alcohol abuse. A study of
high school and college drug users in a rehabilitation center found an 89 percent
reduction in drug usage, and even transient, chronic alcoholics were found achieve a 65%
abstinence rate.
Transcendental
Medication
Website, 2006
Flu vaccine worked more effectively through triggering more antibodies in novice
meditators.
Davidson,
2005
IHM has collaborated with Stanford University and other institutions in studies which have
shown that heart centered techniques and psychophysiological coherence facilitate the
body's healing processes and improve physical health outcomes. For example,
improvements in clinical status have been demonstrated in individuals with hypertension,
diabetes, congestive heart failure, asthma and AIDS.7-11
Institute for
HeartMath
Website, 2006
Japanese Ministry of Labour commissioned a five month study of the effects of the
Transcendental Meditations program on 447 employees in a major heavy industry. The
study found decreased physical complaints, decreased anxiety, decreased depression,
decreased smoking, decreased insomnia, decreased digestive problems, and a
decreased tendency towards neurosis and psychosomatic problems, among those who
learned this technique compared to non-meditating controls.
Transcendental
Medication
Website, 2006

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Meditation is also closely associated with a marked alteration of cortisol patterns; long
term practitioners show reduced cortisol output through the day (thought this data is
preliminary and many factors could account for these differences).
Davidson.
2005
Psychology Today, March-April 1998 discussed a study of 65 patients who listened to
guided imagery tapes for three days before and six days after surgery. The patients
reports less stress and physical pain than a control group and needed only half as much
pain medication as those who had not listened to the tapes.
Travis & Ryan,
2002
A review of 46 studies conducted from 1966 to 1998 by the American Cancer Society
found that guided imagery was effective in managing stress, anxiety, depression, pain
and the side effects of chemotherapy.
Travis & Ryan,
2002
American Journal of Health Promotion, July 2001, noted the effects of a “mindfulness
training program” on 32 highly stressed individuals. Following the two month program,
during which participants learned stress-coping and meditation methods, an average 54%
reduction in psychological distress was reported together with a 46% drop in medical
symptoms accompanied to the control group.
Transforming
Website, 2006
Transcendental Meditation practitioners with 5 years experience were biologically 12
years younger than chronological age.
Trancendental
Meditation
Website, 2006

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Scientific research shows positive effects of Transcendental Meditation program prevent
detrimental effects of ageing, such as reduced blood pressure, enhanced memory,
improved sleep, improved cardiovascular efficiency and many others.
Trancendental
Meditation
Website, 2006
Transcendental Meditation practitioners display a fifty percent reduction in both inpatient
and outpatient medical care utlisation, compared to controls. Hospitilisation 87% lower for
heart disease and 55% lower for cancer. And that is most remarkable, meditators over 40
years old have approximately 70% fewer medical problems than others in their age group.
Trancendental
Meditation
Website, 2006
Researchers at Harvard University showed that meditation as a way to reduce stress
resulted in a survival rate of 100% in patients due to significant drop in systolic blood
pressure. Patients who did not meditate survival rate was 62.6%.
Haven et al,
2002
Of the 131 controlled experiments on prayer-based healing, more than half showed
statistically significant benefits. Changes occur in the body, such as metabolism slowing
down, blood pressure dropping, breathing slowing, heart rate lowers, even brain waves
are less active. This is mostly from contemplative (meditative) prayer).
Hafen et al,
2002
Studies show yoga can relieve the symptoms of several common and potentially life-
threatening illnesses, such as arthritis, arteriosclerosis, chronic fatigue, diabetes, AIDS,
asthma and obesity. Various studies have confirmed the beneficial effects of yoga for
patients with respiratory problems.
Life Positive
Website, 2006

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Transcendental Meditation twice a day improves cardio-vascular health – Prevention
Magazine, September 12, 2005.
Transcendental
Medication
Website, 2006
Researchers report that just two 15 minute transcendental meditation sessions per day
were enough to trigger an average 21 percent increase in the ability of teenagers’ blood
vessels to dilate (therefore reducing their hypertension.
Transcendental
Medication
Website, 2006
Completed studies have found that pain-related drug utilization was decreased, and
activity levels and feelings of self esteem increased, for a majority of participants.
Centre for
Mindfulness,
University
IOWA, 2006
Clinical studies published in 1998 indicates that meditation resulted in patients healing
four times faster than those who did not do meditation.
Kabat-Zinn,
2005
Unviersity of Massachusetts Medical Center Stress Reduction Clinic takes on patients
with difficult medical problems that other physicians gave up on. Kabat-Zinn uses
methods based on mindfulness meditation. Among the more than 4,000 patients he has
treated of 10 years, that simple technique has reduced medical illness by 35%. Even
disease as specific and resistant as psoriasis have responded.
Hafen et al,
2002

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Emotional (Smith, 2007c)
In a pilot study at the University of California at San Francisco, researchers found that
schoolteachers briefly trained in Buddhist techniques and who meditated less than 30
minutes a day improved their moods as much as if they had taken antidepressants.
Ellison, 2006
The “engine”, in this case, is what is often called the limbic system – of the emotional
brain – which is connected to the prefrontal cortex. Through its actions on the prefrontal
cortex, meditation can dampen affective arousal from a limbic system kicked into alarm
mode by fear or anger.
Ellison, 2006
The American Medical Association recommends meditation techniques as a first steps
before medication for borderline hypertension cases.
Answers.com
Website, 2006
Clinical studies have shown that the aspiration to help others (altruism) brings about
constructive changes in the brain through reducing activation in the amygdale and
increased activation of the ventromedial pre-frontal cortex. Mental training in altruism will
improve emotional management.
Davidson,
2005
The risk of relapse to clinical depression is reduced by 50% in patients who followed the
Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy.
Segal, 2005

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MBCT treatment for clinical depression: 66% of people stayed well, compared to 34% on
traditional treatment after a period of one year.
Segal, 2005
Meditation, however, promises to break this apparent chain reaction by allowing us to
recognize "the spark before the flame." Through many hours of quietly observing the
customary tyranny of the emotions, you may gradually familiarize yourself with the quiet
of your mind—the part that one day might choose not to be tyrannized. Says Ricard, "You
become familiar with the way emotions arise, how they can either overwhelm your mind
or vanish without making an impact."
Ellison, 2006
Eudaimonia, that rests on the realization of personal goals and potential. The ideal runs in
a ragged line from Aristotle to Maslow to Sartre, paralleling Buddhism somewhere along
the way.
Ellison, 2006
Neurobiologically we seem wired for empathy. Over the past few years, scientists have
found that the human brain has a system of mirror neurons, activated both when we
perform an action and when we observe similar action by others, including the facial
expression of pain or joy. Such activation allows us not only to infer others' feelings but to
actually share those feelings as well.
Scientists have only recently begun to map the brain regions related to positive emotions
such as empathy. But when Davidson observed Ricard meditating on compassion while
Ellison, 2006

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hooked up to EEG sensors, he found a striking increase in gamma waves in the left
prefrontal cortex, an area correlated with reported feelings of happiness. The findings
furnish scientific support for something the Dalai Lama often says: A person meditating on
compassion for others becomes the first beneficiary.
Clinical studies showed that four years after and eight week Mindfulness Based Stress
Reduction course, participants still experienced positive differences with the treatment
integrated into daily life
Kabat-Zinn,
2005
Average 54% reduction in psychological distress was reported together with a 46% drop
in medical symptoms compared to the control group – results of a mindfulness training
program on 32 highly stressed individuals (American Journal of Health Promotion, July
2001)
Transforming
Practices
Website, 2006
Mental (Smith, 2007c)
In a study led by psychologist Zindel Segal at the University of Toronto, meditation
successfully prevented relapse of depression in patients with a history of recurrent mood
disorder.
Ellison, 2006
The results of this study support the hypothesis that the changes in brain activity that
occur during states of increased psychophysiological coherence lead to changes in the
brain's information processing capabilities. Results suggest that by using heart-based
Institute for
HeartMath,
Website, 2006

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interventions to self-generate coherent states, individuals can significantly enhance
cognitive performance.
The UK National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) has recently endorsed MBCT as
an effective treatment for prevention of relapse. Research has shown that people who
have been clinically depressed 3 or more times (sometimes for twenty years or more) find
that taking the program and learning these skills helps to reduce considerably their
chances that depression will return.
MBCT, Oxford
University,
2006
At the same time, the power of our non-invasive technologies have made it possible to
investigate the nature of cognition and emotion in the brain as never before, and to begin
to explore the interfaces between mind, brain, and body, and the implications of particular
forms of meditative practices for modulating and regulating biological pathways to restore
or enhance homeostatic processes and perhaps extend the reach of both mind and body
in ways that might potentially promote rehabilitation and healing as well as greater overall
health and well-being. Recent studies are showing that meditation can result in stable
brain patterns and changes over both short and long-term intervals that have not been
seen before in human beings and that suggest the potential for the systematic driving of
positive neuroplastic changes via such intentional practices cultivated over time. These
investigations may offer opportunities for understanding the basic unifying mechanisms of
Mind and Life
Org, 2006

of 68
the brain, mind and body that underlie awareness and our capacity for effective
adaptation to stressful and uncertain conditions.
One recent study at Massachusetts General Hospital found that 40 minutes of daily
meditation appears to thicken parts of the cerebral cortex involved in attention and
sensory processing. In a pilot study at the University of California at San Francisco,
researchers found that schoolteachers briefly trained in Buddhist techniques who
meditated less than 30 minutes a day improved their moods as much as if they had taken
antidepressants.
Ellison, 2006
Clinical studies in the US report improved balance and peace of mind after only 8 weeks
of a very simple set of movements taken from a variety of tai chi styles.
Western Science recognizes the following benefits of practicing Tai Chi: increased
oxygen uptake and utilization (more efficient breathing), reduced blood pressure, slower
declines in cardiovascular power, increased bone density, increased strength and range
of motion of joints, greater leg strength, knee strength, and flexibility, reduced levels of
stress hormones during and after practice, improved immune function, and heightened
mood states
Everyday Tai-
Chi Website,
2006
One recent study at Massachusetts General Hospital found that 40 minutes of daily
meditation appears to thicken parts of the cerebral cortex involved in attention and
Ellison, 2006

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sensory processing
It's like you're flexing a muscle in the brain. University of Wisconsin's Davidson contends
that the mental exercise of meditation strengthens and stabilizes neural networks in the
medial prefrontal cortex—the brain's executive control center, involved in the regulation of
attention. "People don't recognize that there is lots of plasticity in the circuitry," he adds.
"More than previously thought."
Ellison, 2006
Encouragement for this new way of thinking comes from an unusual ally. Neuroscience is
furnishing hard evidence that the brain is plastic, endowed with a lifelong capacity to
reorganize itself with each new experience. "We now know that neural firing can lead to
changes in neural connections, and experience leads to changes in neural firing,"
explains UCLA psychiatrist Daniel Siegel. Violinists' brains actually change as they refine
their skill. So do the brains of London cabbies, whose livelihood depends on the
sharpness of their memory. Likewise, through repeated practice in focusing attention,
meditators may be strengthening the neural circuitry involved in the voluntary control of
attention.
Ellison, 2006
It's like you're flexing a muscle in the brain. University of Wisconsin's Davidson contends
that the mental exercise of meditation strengthens and stabilizes neural networks in the
medial prefrontal cortex—the brain's executive control center, involved in the regulation of
attention.
Ellison, 2006

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"People don't recognize that there is lots of plasticity in the circuitry," he adds. "More than
previously thought."
Even among novices, studies show, a brief meditation session can be more effective than
a nap in improving performance on tests that require concentration
Ellison, 2006
Some studies of meditation have linked the practice to increased activity in the left
prefrontal cortex, which is associated with concentration, planning, meta-cognition
(thinking about thinking), and positive affect (good feelings). There are similar studies
linking depression and anxiety with decreased activity in the same region, and/or with
dominant activity in the right prefrontal cortex. Meditation increases activity in the left
prefrontal cortex, and the changes are stable over time — even if you stop meditating for
a while, the effect lingers.
Vick, 2002.
Meditation is associated with marked increases in eletrophysiological signs of activation
(gamma) in the pre-front cortex and other brain regions (long term practitioners).
Davidson,
2005
There is striking correlation between reports of clarity and gamma signal during
compassion meditation.
Davidson,
2005
Untrained practitioners are not good at reporting on the quality of mind. Trained Davidson,

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practitioners can report on the quality of mind. 2005
Gamma signals and clarity correspond with increased levels of prefrontal cortex activity.
(This is the executive seat). De Joe
Davidson,
2005
Compassion meditation activates the pre-frontal center of the brain. Findings indicate
increased left pre-frontal activation in adepts compared to novices. Pre-frontal activation
is associated with positive emotions.
Davidson,
2005
Compassion meditation transforms the brain’s response to distressing sounds (e g the
sounds that indicate suffering and pain, or anger).
Davidson,
2005
Cultivating concentration enhances the front lobe, the executive seat of the human brain
(Quoting Dr Joe Dispenza)
Arntz et al,
Among the more than 4000 patients he (Kabat-Zinn) has treated over 10 years, the
simple technique of MBSR has reduced medical illness in these difficult cases by 35%.
Even disease as specific and resistant as psoriasis have responded. Among the elderly,
other forms of meditation have had even greater health benefits.
Contemplative
Mind Website,
2006
Sara Lazar found a marked decrease in blood flow to the entire brain," Benson explains.
"At the same time, certain areas of the brain became more active, specifically those that
control attention and autonomic functions like blood pressure and metabolism. In short,
Gromie, 2006

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she showed the value of using this method to record changes in the brain's activity during
meditation
A new study shows that meditation may be able to replace medication for treating ADHD.
– ABC News, Washington, DC, March 06, 2006
Transcendental
Medication
Website, 2006

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APPENDIX C: BENEFITS OF CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICE – PIPL RELEVANCE (statistics)
Other PIPL relevance (Smith, 2007c)
A ten year longitudinal study following meditating college students after they graduated
found significant increase in holistic measures of self development (ego-development)
compared to data sets for graduates of three control universities matches for gender and
age.
Transcendental
Meditation
Website, 2006
One of meditation’s most important benefits may be the effect it has on your self-concept Budilovsky &
Eve Adamson,
2003
When the physiological coherence mode is driven by a positive emotional state, we call it
psychophysiological coherence. This state is associated with sustained positive emotion
and a high degree of mental and emotional stability. In states of psychophysiological
coherence, there is increased synchronization and harmony between the cognitive,
emotional and physiological systems, resulting in efficient and harmonious functioning of
the whole. As we will see in subsequent sections, studies conducted across diverse
populations have linked the capacity to self-generate and sustain psychophysiologically
coherent states at will with numerous benefits. Observed outcomes include: reduced
stress, anxiety and depression; decreased burnout and fatigue; enhanced immunity and
Institute for
HeartMath
Website, 2006

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hormonal balance; improved cognitive performance and enhanced learning; increased
organizational effectiveness; and health improvements in a number of clinical populations.
Data showed that in subjects separated by several feet, synchronization can occur
between the alpha waves in one person's EEG and the other's ECG signal. However, in
this experiment, whether the "receiving" subject's brainwaves synchronized to the
"source" subject's heart signal was determined by the degree of coherence in the
receiving subject's heart rhythms. Subjects who demonstrated high heart rhythm
coherence were more likely to show alpha wave synchronization to the other subject's
ECG. This effect was not apparent in subjects with low heart rhythm coherence.
Institute for
HeartMath
Website, 2006
A large scale study of 11,000 prisoners and 900 staff officers in Senegal West Africa in
1987 found that the TM program markedly decreased prison violence, health problems.
Transcendental
Meditation
Website, 2006

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