This document discusses various media theories and provides examples of evidence that could support or argue against each theory. It examines theories related to power and media industries, regulation of media industries, cultural industries, media audiences and effects, media language and representations, identity, gender, ethnicity, and post-colonial theory. For each theory, it lists what types of examples from news media may provide evidence for or against the validity of that theoretical perspective.

1. Applyingtheories:News
Mediaindustries
Power and mediaindustries – Curran and Seaton
Studiesof concentrationof ownershipandcontrol will validatethistheory.
Examplesof diverse opinions(e.g.inonlinenewsornon-mainstreamprintnewspapers)wouldargue
againstthistheory,as wouldexamplesof newspaperssacrificingprofitforthe sake of qualityand
creativity(e.g.the Guardianrefusingtoputup a paywall butinsteadcallingforsupporterstofund
qualityjournalism).
Regulation– Livingstone and Lunt
Originallyappliedtotelevisionandradio,butconsumerismasdefinedinthisstudycanbe evidenced
inthe online editionsof newspapersandincreasinglyinthe printeditions,withthe traditional public
interestnewsfunctionbeingrelativelymarginalised(perhaps bestillustratedbyacomparisonof a
newspaperfrontpage fromthe 1950s withits contemporarycounterpart).
Examplesof publicdebatesaboutthe role of social mediacompaniesinnewsanddisinformation
wouldsupportthe ideaof the difficultiesof regulatingglobalisedconvergentmedia.
Examplesof the newmediaoperatinginsociallyresponsiblewaysinthe publicinterest(asisstarting
to happenin2018) wouldargue againstthistheory,as wouldthe exampleof stronglyregulated
online contentinauthoritariansocietiessuchasChina.
Cultural Industries – Hesmondhalgh
Examplesof newspapersrelyingonpredictable audience-pleasinglow-risknews –suchas royalty,
celebrities,lifestyleandmainstreamsportcontent –wouldcountas evidence tosupport thistheory.
Patternsof ownershipandcontrol thatare not verticallyintegratedinlarge corporations,e.g.thatof
the Guardian,wouldcountas evidence againstthistheory,aswouldevidence of the online media
allowingadiverse range of newvoicestobe heard.
MediaAudiences
Bandura
Studiesof newssourcesthatshowthe same valuesandjudgementsunderlyingdifferentnewspaper
coverage (e.g.expressingcore ideologiessuchasdemocracyand the rule of law,or individualism)
may suggesta directeffectonaudiences.
Studiesof newssourceswithradicallydifferentvaluesandjudgements,orwhere audience
commentssuggestoppositionalreadingsof the original articles,maysuggestthatnewssourceswill
have lessof a directeffect.
Gerbner
As Gerbnerstudiedthe effectof television hisstudyis of limitedrelevance toprintandonline news,
where competingviewpointsare common, exceptthatlongtermsocial mediause mayleadto
cultivatedeffects.

2. Applyingtheories:News
Couldbe appliedtoaudienceswhoremainwithinaprintordigital ‘bubble’andhave theirviewpoints
constantlyreinforced –‘Guardian-readers’and‘Mail-readers’whoneverreadothersourcesof news.
The presence of alternative viewpoints –e.g.incommentsonnewsarticles – maycount as evidence
againstthe cultivationeffectinonlinemedia.
Hall
Commentsononline newsmaybe arich source of these differentreadings,aswill otherformsof
audience research. Newssourceswill tendtowardsa‘preferredmeaning’withinjournalistic
discourse,supporting thistheory,butanyexamplesof deeplyironicorpolysemicmessagescouldwork
as counter-examples,thoughboththe GuardianandMail have a strong ethosthattendsto pervade
theirmaterial (perhapslesssointhe Mail Online?).
Jenkinsand Shirky
Examplesof citizenjournalism,interactionwithnewssites,andaudiencesusingamediatextasa
startingpointto generate adiscourse thatspillsoutindifferentdirectionswouldvalidate these
approaches.
Exampleswhere applicationof traditional newsvaluessetsthe newsagenda –i.e.muchmainstream
newsreporting–wouldargue againstthese approaches.
Medialanguage
The combinationof elementstocreate meaning(semioticsandpolysemy) –usesBarthes
The genericconventionsof printandonline newspapers,theirvariations,change overtime,
hybridityandchallenging/subvertingconventions –usesNeale
The significance of intertextuality –usesBaudrillard
The way medialanguage incorporatesviewpointsandideologies –usesBarthes,Todorov and Levi-
Strauss
Mediarepresentations
Hall
Evidence thatmightsupportthistheoryincludes:
 Examplesof audience contestationof preferredmeaningsinproducts(e.g.throughanalysis
of commentsassuggestedunderaudience).
 Examplesof attemptstogo against stereotypesthatunwittinglyreinforce those stereotypes
 Examplesof successful attemptstodeconstructastereotype byrevealingandthus
underminingitsstereotypical nature.
Theoriesof Identity– Gauntlett
Evidence thatmightsupportthistheoryincludes:

3. Applyingtheories:News
 Exampleswhere the successof ‘popularfeminism’andincreasingrepresentationof different
sexualitiesrepresentsthe meaningof gender,sexualityandidentityasincreasinglyopen
 Exampleswhere newsencouragesparticipationandnew formsof identity(e.g.newsabout
the me-toomovement).
FeministTheory– Van Zoonen
Evidence thatmightsupportthistheoryincludes:
 Examplesof representationscentredonobjectificationsof women’sbodiesandother
patriarchal representations
 Examplesof newsthat representsthe constructionof gender(e.g.debatesabouttrans
women).
FeministTheory– hooks
Evidence thatmightsupportthistheoryincludes:
 Examplesof representationsreinforcingthe ‘white supremacistcapitalistpatriarchy’
 Examplesof oppositional blackfemaleresponsestonews
Theoriesof GenderPerformativity – Butler
Evidence thatmightsupportthistheoryincludes:
 Examplesof repetitionof representationsreinforcinggenderperformances
 Examplesof newsthat‘queers’gendernorms.
Theoriesaround ethnicityand post-colonial theory– Gilroy
Evidence thatmightsupportthistheoryincludes:
 Examplesof representationscelebratingatransnational Blackculture (the BlackAtlantic)
 Examplesof representationsthatreinforce awhite versionof Britishnessandaview of the
worldthat reflectsthe Britishexperience of empireandcolonialism