Antihelminthic and antiprotozoal drugs are used to treat infections caused by parasites. The major classes of antihelminthics discussed target nematodes, trematodes, and cestodes. Specific drugs mentioned include mebendazole, albendazole, pyrantel, levamisole, and praziquantel. These drugs work through various mechanisms including disrupting microtubule assembly, inducing muscle paralysis, or causing calcium leakage. Common side effects include abdominal pain, diarrhea, and allergic reactions. Antiprotozoal drugs discussed treat infections caused by protozoa like Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, and Plasmodium
Introduction
Classification of Helminthiasis
Classification of Anthelmintics Drugs
Mebendazole
Albendazole
Pyrentel pamoate
Peperazine
Levamisole
Praziquantel
Niclosamide
Ivermectin
Diethylcarbamazine
Helminthiasis, also known as worm infection, is any macroparasitic disease of humans and other animals in which a part of the body is infected with parasitic worms, known as helminths. There are numerous species of these parasites, which are broadly classified into tapeworms, flukes, and roundworms.
The helminths worms are macroscopic, multicellular organisms having their own digestive, excretory, reproductive and nervous system. The helminths could be nemathelminths (round bodied worms) or platyhelminths (flat bodied worms).
Nematodes (round worms) are long, round bodied segmented worms that are tapered at both ends . In festation occurs if the embryonated eggs or tissues of infested host contain larva of the nematode.
Introduction
Classification of Helminthiasis
Classification of Anthelmintics Drugs
Mebendazole
Albendazole
Pyrentel pamoate
Peperazine
Levamisole
Praziquantel
Niclosamide
Ivermectin
Diethylcarbamazine
Helminthiasis, also known as worm infection, is any macroparasitic disease of humans and other animals in which a part of the body is infected with parasitic worms, known as helminths. There are numerous species of these parasites, which are broadly classified into tapeworms, flukes, and roundworms.
The helminths worms are macroscopic, multicellular organisms having their own digestive, excretory, reproductive and nervous system. The helminths could be nemathelminths (round bodied worms) or platyhelminths (flat bodied worms).
Nematodes (round worms) are long, round bodied segmented worms that are tapered at both ends . In festation occurs if the embryonated eggs or tissues of infested host contain larva of the nematode.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
2. • Antihelmintics are drugs that either kill
(vermicide) or expel (vermifuge) infesting
helminths.
• Nematodes, trematodes, and cestodes are three
major groups of helminthes (worms) that infect
humans.
• Nematodes are elongated roundworms that
possess a complete digestive system. They
cause infections of the intestine as well as the
blood and tissues.
• We use: mebendazole, albendazole, pyrantel,
levamisol, piperazine.
3.
4. Mebendazole
• Uses: whipworms (Trichuris trichiura), pinworms
(Enterobius vermicularis), hookworms (Necator
americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale), and
roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides);
in high doses: extraintestinal helminthiasis
(trichinellosis and echinococcosis)
• It inhibits the assembly of the microtubules and
glucose utilization in helminthes and paralyses them.
It kills ova and larvae of Ascaris.
• Absorption from intestines – 10-15%
• Adverse effects: abdominal pain, diarrhea,
headache, allergic reactions
5. Albendazole
Uses: ascariasis, hookworms and enterobiasis
(a single dose) , toxocariasis, filariasis,
cysticercosis, echinococcosis (long-term
therapy).
It is absorbed from GIT, metabolized in the
liver.
Adverse effects: headache, diarrhea, dizziness,
leucopenia, skin rashes, abdominal pain,
vomiting.
6. Levamisole
Uses: a single dose – ascariasis, less effective
– ankylostomiasis, strongyloidiasis, filariasis.
Mechanism: stimulation of ganglia, drug-
induced paralysis of helminthes due to
depolarization of their muscles, inhibition of
fumarate reductase and metabolism.
Adverse effects: abdominal pain, diarrhea,
nausea
7.
8. • Pyrantel is active against Ascaris, Enterobius,
Ancylostoma, Necator, Strongyloides
• Mechanism: activation of nicotinic cholinergic
receptors in the worms → persistent
depolarization → slowly developing
contracture and spastic paralysis.
• Absorption from GIT – 10-15%.
• Adverse effects: nausea, vomiting, abdominal
pain, headache and dizziness
9. Diethylcarbamazine citrate is
microfilaricidal. It has a highly selective effect
on microfilariae and against adult worms.
It is rapidly absorbed following oral
administration with meals and is excreted
mainly in the urine.
Adverse effects may include fever, nausea,
vomiting, arthralgia, and headache.
10. Niclosamide
• Uses: Taenia saginata, Diphyllobothrium latum
and Hymenolepis nana.
• It inhibits the mitochondrial phosphorylation of
adenosine diphosphate (ADP). Anaerobic
metabolism may also be inhibited.
• In cases of T. solium, digestion of the dead
segments can be hazardous, because the ova
released from them may develop into larvae in the
intestine, penetrate its wall and cause visceral
cysticercosis.
• It is minimally absorbed from GIT.
• Adverse effects: dyspepsia, allergic reactions.
11.
12. Praziquantel
Uses: all forms of schistosomiasis, other
trematode infections, cestode infections such as
taeniasis, cysticercosis (caused by Taenia solium
larvae)
Mechanism: leakage of intracellular calcium from
the membranes → contracture and paralysis.
It is rapidly absorbed after oral administration and
distributes into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It is
extensively metabolized, and the inactive
metabolites are excreted primarily in the urine.
Adverse effects: dizziness, malaise, headache
13. Antiprotozoal drugs are used for the treatment
and prophylaxis of:
Malaria
Amebiasis
Giardiasis (Metronidazole, furazolidone)
Trixomoniasis (Metronidazole, furazolidone,
Diiodohydroxyquin rect.)
16. Antiamoebic drugs - drugs useful in infection
caused by the anaerobic protozoa Entamoeba
histolytica.
17. CLASSIFICATION
1. Tissue amoebicides
For both intestinal and extraintestinal amoebiasis:
Nitroimidazoles: Metronidazole, Tinidazole,
Ornidazole
For extraintestinal amoebiasis only: Chloroquine
2. Luminal amoebicides: Tetracyclines
18. • Nitroimidazoles (Metronidazole) is used for the
treatment of infections caused by:
• Entamoeba histolytica,
• Giardia lamblia,
• Trichomonas vaginalis,
• anaerobic cocci, and anaerobic gram-negative
bacilli (Bacteroides species),
• for the treatment of pseudomembranous colitis
caused by the anaerobic, gram-positive bacillus
Clostridium difficile.
19.
20. • The nitro group of Nitroimidazoles is able to
serve as an electron acceptor, forming reduced
cytotoxic compounds that bind to proteins and
DNA. The drugs disrupt metabolism and cause
death of microorganisms.
• They are absorbed well from GIT, distribute well
throughout body tissues and fluids. Therapeutic
levels can be found in vaginal and seminal fluids,
saliva, breast milk, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
• Tinidazole and ornidazole are well absorbed from
GIT, accumulated in the plasma in higher
concentrations than Metronidazole and provide
longer effect than it.
21. Adverse effects:
nausea, vomiting, epigastric distress, and
abdominal cramps, an unpleasant,
metallic taste,
oral moniliasis (yeast infection of the
mouth),
neurotoxicity (dizziness, vertigo, and
numbness or paresthesia),
a disulfiram-like reaction (if taken with
alcohol).
22. • Malaria is one of the most common diseases
worldwide and a leading cause of death. Plasmodium
species that infect humans (P falciparum, P malariae,
P ovale, P vivax) undergo a primary developmental
stage in the liver and then parasitize erythrocytes. P
falciparum and P malariae have only 1 cycle of liver
cell invasion. The other species have a dormant
hepatic stage responsible for recurrent infections and
relapses. Primary tissue schizonticides (eg,
primaquine) kill schizonts in the liver, whereas
blood schizonticides (eg, chloroquine, quinine) kill
these parasitic forms only in the erythrocyte.
Sporonticides (proguanil, pyrimethamine) prevent
sporogony and multiplication in the mosquito.
24. Principals of antimalarial drugs use
1. Individual chemoprophylaxis: prevention of the
development of malaria in men during the time
of residency in a area which has a high risk of
malaria. We can use drugs influencing on
preerythrocytic forms or hematoshizotropic
drugs (pyrimethamine, chloroquin)
2. The treatment: oral administration of
hematoshizotropic drugs, which influence
erythrocytic forms of plasmodia. These drugs are
used to cure the acute attacks of M.
25. 3. Prevention of delayed relapses: administration
of drugs which have tropism towards
paraerythrocytic forms (primaquine).
4. Social chemoprophylaxis: prevention of the
transmission of the infection by a sick person.
We use gametotropic drugs (primaquine,
pyrimethamine).
26.
27. • Chinine (Quinine) complexes with
doublestranded DNA and prevents strand
separation, blocks DNA replication and
transcription to RNA. It is solely a blood
schizonticide.
• It is rapidly absorbed orally and is metabolized
before renal excretion. Intravenous administration
of quinine is possible in severe infections.
• It is used in the treatment of severe or
complicated falciparum malaria.
• Adverse effects: cinchonism (gastrointestinal
distress, headache, vertigo, blurred vision and
tinnitus).
28. • Chloroquine is rapidly absorbed when given
orally, is widely distributed to tissues.
• It accumulates in the food vacuole of plasmodia
and prevents polymerization of the hemoglobin
breakdown product heme into hemozoin.
Intracellular accumulation of heme is toxic to the
parasite.
• It is the drug of choice for acute attacks of malaria
and for chemoprophylaxis.
• Side effects: gastrointestinal irritation, skin rash,
and headaches; peripheral neuropathies,
myocardial depression, retinal damage, auditory
impairment, and toxic psychosis
29. • Sulfonamides act as antimetabolites of PABA and
block folic acid synthesis by inhibiting
dihydropteroate synthase.
• Pyrimethamine is a selective inhibitor of
protozoan dihydrofolate reductases. The
combination has synergistic antimalarial effects
(blockade of 2 steps in folic acid synthesis).
• The antifols are blood schizonticides that act
mainly against P falciparum.
• Adverse effects: skin rashes, gastrointestinal
distress, hemolysis, kidney damage.
30. • Primaquine is a synthetic 8-aminoquinoline. It
is used orally.
• It forms quinoline- quinone metabolites, which
are electron-transferring redox compounds that
act as cellular oxidants. The drug is a tissue
schizonticide and also limits malaria
transmission by acting as a gametocide.
• Uses: Eradication of liver stages of P vivax and P
ovale, primary prevention
• Adverse effects: GI distress,
methemoglobinemia, hemolysis in G6PD
deficiency
32. Mechanism:
The restoration of the nitro group to the amino
group under the influence of reductase
microbial cells.
The formation of complexes with nucleic acids,
Disruption of the respiratory chain of
microorganisms.
Increase in the body's resistance to infections.
The decline in the production of toxins.
Type of action: bacteriostatic or bactericidal
33. Side effects
Dyspeptic disorders: nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea;
Cholestasis; disorders of liver function;
Allergic reaction;
Headache, dizziness;
Hemolytic anemia,
Methemoglobinemia in children
up to a year;
Arterial hypertension
34. • Melarsoprol is used for the treatment of
trypanosomal infections. The drug reacts with
sulfhydryl groups of various substances, including
enzymes in both the organism and host.
• It is administered by slow IV injection and has
irritating effect. Adequate trypanocidal
concentrations appear in the CSF. The drug has a
very short half-life and is rapidly excreted in urine.
• Adverse effects: CNS toxicity, peripheral
neuropathy, hypertension, albuminuria; allergy,
febrile reactions; hemolytic anemia in patients
with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
deficiency.
35.
36. Leishmania, transmitted by flesh-eating flies,
cause various diseases ranging from or
mucocutaneous lesions to splenic and hepatic
enlargement with fever.
37. • Solusurminum and Sodium stibogluconate
(pentavalent antimony) kills the parasite by
inhibition of glycolysis or effects on nucleic
acid metabolism.
• Stibogluconate must be administered
parenterally and is potentially cardiotoxic
(QT prolongation). Alternative agents
include fluconazole or metronidazole (for
cutaneous lesions), and amphotericin (for
mucocutaneous leishmaniasis).
38. Literature
1. Tripathi K.D. Essentials of Medical Pharmacology. Eighth Edition. -2019.- Jaypee
Brothers Medical Publishers. The Health Sciences Publisher. -New Delhi. London. Panama
2. D.A.Kharkevich. Pharmacology. Textbook for medical students. Translation of 12th
edition of Russion textbook “Pharmacology” (2017). – М., ГЭОТАР-Медиа, 2017.
3. Review of pharmacology. Gobind Rai Garg, Sparsh Gupta. 13th edition. - 2019.- Jaypee
Brothers Medical Publishers. The Health Sciences Publisher. -New Delhi. London. Panama
4. Whalen Karen. Lippincott Illustrated Reviews: Pharmacology. Sixth Edition. - Wolters
Kluwer. - 2015.-Philadelphia
5. Color Atlas of Pharmacology. 2nd edition, revised and expanded. Heinz Lüllmann.- 2000
Thieme
6. Pharmacology Examination & Board Review. Tenth Edition. Trevor Anthony J.,
Katzung Bertram G., Kruidering-Hall Marieke, Susan B. Masters. - a LANGE medical
book. - 2013.-New York
7. Medical Pharmacology at a Glance. Eighth Edition. Neal Michael J. – 2016. John Wiley
& Sons, Ltd.
8. USMLE Step 1. Lecture Notes. Pharmacology. Lionel P.Raymon and others.- Kaplan
Medical.Inc. -2009