Antihelminthic and antiprotozoal drugs are used to treat infections caused by parasites. The major classes of antihelminthics discussed target nematodes, trematodes, and cestodes. Specific drugs mentioned include mebendazole, albendazole, pyrantel, levamisole, and praziquantel. These drugs work through various mechanisms including disrupting microtubule assembly, inducing muscle paralysis, or causing calcium leakage. Common side effects include abdominal pain, diarrhea, and allergic reactions. Antiprotozoal drugs discussed treat infections caused by protozoa like Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, and Plasmodium
Introduction
Classification of Helminthiasis
Classification of Anthelmintics Drugs
Mebendazole
Albendazole
Pyrentel pamoate
Peperazine
Levamisole
Praziquantel
Niclosamide
Ivermectin
Diethylcarbamazine
Helminthiasis, also known as worm infection, is any macroparasitic disease of humans and other animals in which a part of the body is infected with parasitic worms, known as helminths. There are numerous species of these parasites, which are broadly classified into tapeworms, flukes, and roundworms.
The helminths worms are macroscopic, multicellular organisms having their own digestive, excretory, reproductive and nervous system. The helminths could be nemathelminths (round bodied worms) or platyhelminths (flat bodied worms).
Nematodes (round worms) are long, round bodied segmented worms that are tapered at both ends . In festation occurs if the embryonated eggs or tissues of infested host contain larva of the nematode.
Introduction
Classification of Helminthiasis
Classification of Anthelmintics Drugs
Mebendazole
Albendazole
Pyrentel pamoate
Peperazine
Levamisole
Praziquantel
Niclosamide
Ivermectin
Diethylcarbamazine
Helminthiasis, also known as worm infection, is any macroparasitic disease of humans and other animals in which a part of the body is infected with parasitic worms, known as helminths. There are numerous species of these parasites, which are broadly classified into tapeworms, flukes, and roundworms.
The helminths worms are macroscopic, multicellular organisms having their own digestive, excretory, reproductive and nervous system. The helminths could be nemathelminths (round bodied worms) or platyhelminths (flat bodied worms).
Nematodes (round worms) are long, round bodied segmented worms that are tapered at both ends . In festation occurs if the embryonated eggs or tissues of infested host contain larva of the nematode.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
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Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
2. • Antihelmintics are drugs that either kill
(vermicide) or expel (vermifuge) infesting
helminths.
• Nematodes, trematodes, and cestodes are three
major groups of helminthes (worms) that infect
humans.
• Nematodes are elongated roundworms that
possess a complete digestive system. They
cause infections of the intestine as well as the
blood and tissues.
• We use: mebendazole, albendazole, pyrantel,
levamisol, piperazine.
3.
4. Mebendazole
• Uses: whipworms (Trichuris trichiura), pinworms
(Enterobius vermicularis), hookworms (Necator
americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale), and
roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides);
in high doses: extraintestinal helminthiasis
(trichinellosis and echinococcosis)
• It inhibits the assembly of the microtubules and
glucose utilization in helminthes and paralyses them.
It kills ova and larvae of Ascaris.
• Absorption from intestines – 10-15%
• Adverse effects: abdominal pain, diarrhea,
headache, allergic reactions
5. Albendazole
Uses: ascariasis, hookworms and enterobiasis
(a single dose) , toxocariasis, filariasis,
cysticercosis, echinococcosis (long-term
therapy).
It is absorbed from GIT, metabolized in the
liver.
Adverse effects: headache, diarrhea, dizziness,
leucopenia, skin rashes, abdominal pain,
vomiting.
6. Levamisole
Uses: a single dose – ascariasis, less effective
– ankylostomiasis, strongyloidiasis, filariasis.
Mechanism: stimulation of ganglia, drug-
induced paralysis of helminthes due to
depolarization of their muscles, inhibition of
fumarate reductase and metabolism.
Adverse effects: abdominal pain, diarrhea,
nausea
7.
8. • Pyrantel is active against Ascaris, Enterobius,
Ancylostoma, Necator, Strongyloides
• Mechanism: activation of nicotinic cholinergic
receptors in the worms → persistent
depolarization → slowly developing
contracture and spastic paralysis.
• Absorption from GIT – 10-15%.
• Adverse effects: nausea, vomiting, abdominal
pain, headache and dizziness
9. Diethylcarbamazine citrate is
microfilaricidal. It has a highly selective effect
on microfilariae and against adult worms.
It is rapidly absorbed following oral
administration with meals and is excreted
mainly in the urine.
Adverse effects may include fever, nausea,
vomiting, arthralgia, and headache.
10. Niclosamide
• Uses: Taenia saginata, Diphyllobothrium latum
and Hymenolepis nana.
• It inhibits the mitochondrial phosphorylation of
adenosine diphosphate (ADP). Anaerobic
metabolism may also be inhibited.
• In cases of T. solium, digestion of the dead
segments can be hazardous, because the ova
released from them may develop into larvae in the
intestine, penetrate its wall and cause visceral
cysticercosis.
• It is minimally absorbed from GIT.
• Adverse effects: dyspepsia, allergic reactions.
11.
12. Praziquantel
Uses: all forms of schistosomiasis, other
trematode infections, cestode infections such as
taeniasis, cysticercosis (caused by Taenia solium
larvae)
Mechanism: leakage of intracellular calcium from
the membranes → contracture and paralysis.
It is rapidly absorbed after oral administration and
distributes into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It is
extensively metabolized, and the inactive
metabolites are excreted primarily in the urine.
Adverse effects: dizziness, malaise, headache
13. Antiprotozoal drugs are used for the treatment
and prophylaxis of:
Malaria
Amebiasis
Giardiasis (Metronidazole, furazolidone)
Trixomoniasis (Metronidazole, furazolidone,
Diiodohydroxyquin rect.)
16. Antiamoebic drugs - drugs useful in infection
caused by the anaerobic protozoa Entamoeba
histolytica.
17. CLASSIFICATION
1. Tissue amoebicides
For both intestinal and extraintestinal amoebiasis:
Nitroimidazoles: Metronidazole, Tinidazole,
Ornidazole
For extraintestinal amoebiasis only: Chloroquine
2. Luminal amoebicides: Tetracyclines
18. • Nitroimidazoles (Metronidazole) is used for the
treatment of infections caused by:
• Entamoeba histolytica,
• Giardia lamblia,
• Trichomonas vaginalis,
• anaerobic cocci, and anaerobic gram-negative
bacilli (Bacteroides species),
• for the treatment of pseudomembranous colitis
caused by the anaerobic, gram-positive bacillus
Clostridium difficile.
19.
20. • The nitro group of Nitroimidazoles is able to
serve as an electron acceptor, forming reduced
cytotoxic compounds that bind to proteins and
DNA. The drugs disrupt metabolism and cause
death of microorganisms.
• They are absorbed well from GIT, distribute well
throughout body tissues and fluids. Therapeutic
levels can be found in vaginal and seminal fluids,
saliva, breast milk, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
• Tinidazole and ornidazole are well absorbed from
GIT, accumulated in the plasma in higher
concentrations than Metronidazole and provide
longer effect than it.
21. Adverse effects:
nausea, vomiting, epigastric distress, and
abdominal cramps, an unpleasant,
metallic taste,
oral moniliasis (yeast infection of the
mouth),
neurotoxicity (dizziness, vertigo, and
numbness or paresthesia),
a disulfiram-like reaction (if taken with
alcohol).
22. • Malaria is one of the most common diseases
worldwide and a leading cause of death. Plasmodium
species that infect humans (P falciparum, P malariae,
P ovale, P vivax) undergo a primary developmental
stage in the liver and then parasitize erythrocytes. P
falciparum and P malariae have only 1 cycle of liver
cell invasion. The other species have a dormant
hepatic stage responsible for recurrent infections and
relapses. Primary tissue schizonticides (eg,
primaquine) kill schizonts in the liver, whereas
blood schizonticides (eg, chloroquine, quinine) kill
these parasitic forms only in the erythrocyte.
Sporonticides (proguanil, pyrimethamine) prevent
sporogony and multiplication in the mosquito.
24. Principals of antimalarial drugs use
1. Individual chemoprophylaxis: prevention of the
development of malaria in men during the time
of residency in a area which has a high risk of
malaria. We can use drugs influencing on
preerythrocytic forms or hematoshizotropic
drugs (pyrimethamine, chloroquin)
2. The treatment: oral administration of
hematoshizotropic drugs, which influence
erythrocytic forms of plasmodia. These drugs are
used to cure the acute attacks of M.
25. 3. Prevention of delayed relapses: administration
of drugs which have tropism towards
paraerythrocytic forms (primaquine).
4. Social chemoprophylaxis: prevention of the
transmission of the infection by a sick person.
We use gametotropic drugs (primaquine,
pyrimethamine).
26.
27. • Chinine (Quinine) complexes with
doublestranded DNA and prevents strand
separation, blocks DNA replication and
transcription to RNA. It is solely a blood
schizonticide.
• It is rapidly absorbed orally and is metabolized
before renal excretion. Intravenous administration
of quinine is possible in severe infections.
• It is used in the treatment of severe or
complicated falciparum malaria.
• Adverse effects: cinchonism (gastrointestinal
distress, headache, vertigo, blurred vision and
tinnitus).
28. • Chloroquine is rapidly absorbed when given
orally, is widely distributed to tissues.
• It accumulates in the food vacuole of plasmodia
and prevents polymerization of the hemoglobin
breakdown product heme into hemozoin.
Intracellular accumulation of heme is toxic to the
parasite.
• It is the drug of choice for acute attacks of malaria
and for chemoprophylaxis.
• Side effects: gastrointestinal irritation, skin rash,
and headaches; peripheral neuropathies,
myocardial depression, retinal damage, auditory
impairment, and toxic psychosis
29. • Sulfonamides act as antimetabolites of PABA and
block folic acid synthesis by inhibiting
dihydropteroate synthase.
• Pyrimethamine is a selective inhibitor of
protozoan dihydrofolate reductases. The
combination has synergistic antimalarial effects
(blockade of 2 steps in folic acid synthesis).
• The antifols are blood schizonticides that act
mainly against P falciparum.
• Adverse effects: skin rashes, gastrointestinal
distress, hemolysis, kidney damage.
30. • Primaquine is a synthetic 8-aminoquinoline. It
is used orally.
• It forms quinoline- quinone metabolites, which
are electron-transferring redox compounds that
act as cellular oxidants. The drug is a tissue
schizonticide and also limits malaria
transmission by acting as a gametocide.
• Uses: Eradication of liver stages of P vivax and P
ovale, primary prevention
• Adverse effects: GI distress,
methemoglobinemia, hemolysis in G6PD
deficiency
32. Mechanism:
The restoration of the nitro group to the amino
group under the influence of reductase
microbial cells.
The formation of complexes with nucleic acids,
Disruption of the respiratory chain of
microorganisms.
Increase in the body's resistance to infections.
The decline in the production of toxins.
Type of action: bacteriostatic or bactericidal
33. Side effects
Dyspeptic disorders: nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea;
Cholestasis; disorders of liver function;
Allergic reaction;
Headache, dizziness;
Hemolytic anemia,
Methemoglobinemia in children
up to a year;
Arterial hypertension
34. • Melarsoprol is used for the treatment of
trypanosomal infections. The drug reacts with
sulfhydryl groups of various substances, including
enzymes in both the organism and host.
• It is administered by slow IV injection and has
irritating effect. Adequate trypanocidal
concentrations appear in the CSF. The drug has a
very short half-life and is rapidly excreted in urine.
• Adverse effects: CNS toxicity, peripheral
neuropathy, hypertension, albuminuria; allergy,
febrile reactions; hemolytic anemia in patients
with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
deficiency.
35.
36. Leishmania, transmitted by flesh-eating flies,
cause various diseases ranging from or
mucocutaneous lesions to splenic and hepatic
enlargement with fever.
37. • Solusurminum and Sodium stibogluconate
(pentavalent antimony) kills the parasite by
inhibition of glycolysis or effects on nucleic
acid metabolism.
• Stibogluconate must be administered
parenterally and is potentially cardiotoxic
(QT prolongation). Alternative agents
include fluconazole or metronidazole (for
cutaneous lesions), and amphotericin (for
mucocutaneous leishmaniasis).
38. Literature
1. Tripathi K.D. Essentials of Medical Pharmacology. Eighth Edition. -2019.- Jaypee
Brothers Medical Publishers. The Health Sciences Publisher. -New Delhi. London. Panama
2. D.A.Kharkevich. Pharmacology. Textbook for medical students. Translation of 12th
edition of Russion textbook “Pharmacology” (2017). – М., ГЭОТАР-Медиа, 2017.
3. Review of pharmacology. Gobind Rai Garg, Sparsh Gupta. 13th edition. - 2019.- Jaypee
Brothers Medical Publishers. The Health Sciences Publisher. -New Delhi. London. Panama
4. Whalen Karen. Lippincott Illustrated Reviews: Pharmacology. Sixth Edition. - Wolters
Kluwer. - 2015.-Philadelphia
5. Color Atlas of Pharmacology. 2nd edition, revised and expanded. Heinz Lüllmann.- 2000
Thieme
6. Pharmacology Examination & Board Review. Tenth Edition. Trevor Anthony J.,
Katzung Bertram G., Kruidering-Hall Marieke, Susan B. Masters. - a LANGE medical
book. - 2013.-New York
7. Medical Pharmacology at a Glance. Eighth Edition. Neal Michael J. – 2016. John Wiley
& Sons, Ltd.
8. USMLE Step 1. Lecture Notes. Pharmacology. Lionel P.Raymon and others.- Kaplan
Medical.Inc. -2009