Antibiotics can be classified into several types based on their spectrum of activity and chemical structure. This includes broad spectrum antibiotics such as amoxicillin that act against many bacteria, and narrow spectrum antibiotics like azithromycin that target specific families of bacteria. Common types are penicillins, cephalosporins, macrolides, fluoroquinolones, sulfonamides, tetracyclines, and aminoglycosides. Antibiotics work by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, or nucleic acid synthesis. They are used to treat bacterial infections but not viral infections.
This PPT covers drug therapy for tuberculosis. It includes classification of antitubercular drugs, chemotherapy for tuberculosis, strategies for addressing resistance and pharmacotherapy of antitubercular drugs
This PPT covers drug therapy for tuberculosis. It includes classification of antitubercular drugs, chemotherapy for tuberculosis, strategies for addressing resistance and pharmacotherapy of antitubercular drugs
synthetic antimicrobials having a quinolone structure that are active primarily against gram-negative bacteria, though newer fluorinated compounds also inhibit gram-positive ones.
Definition
History
Chemistry
Properties
Classification & its Generation
Pharmacokinetics
Mechanism of action
Indication
Contraindication
Therapeutic use
Adverse effect
Resistance
Comparison with penicillin
Market preparation
Oral hypoglycemic drugs are used only in the treatment of type 2 diabetes which is a disorder involving resistance to secreted insulin. Type 1 diabetes involves a lack of insulin and requires insulin for treatment. There are now four classes of hypoglycemic drugs:
synthetic antimicrobials having a quinolone structure that are active primarily against gram-negative bacteria, though newer fluorinated compounds also inhibit gram-positive ones.
Definition
History
Chemistry
Properties
Classification & its Generation
Pharmacokinetics
Mechanism of action
Indication
Contraindication
Therapeutic use
Adverse effect
Resistance
Comparison with penicillin
Market preparation
Oral hypoglycemic drugs are used only in the treatment of type 2 diabetes which is a disorder involving resistance to secreted insulin. Type 1 diabetes involves a lack of insulin and requires insulin for treatment. There are now four classes of hypoglycemic drugs:
DEFINITION CHEMOTHERAPY & ANTIBIOTICS
CHEMOTHERAPY: Chemotherapy is the treatment of infections by substances which destroy or suppress bacteria and other microorganism. The substances / Agents used may natural synthetic or semi – synthetic in nature.
ANTIBIOTICS: An antibiotic is a chemical substance produced by microorganism which prevents the growth of other microorganism or kills the other microorganism. These are natural substances
CHEMOTHERAPY
It is a method of therapy of infectious disease and cancer with chemical agents – chemotherapeutic medicines
ANTIBIOTICS CLASSIFIED AS:
According to the mode of action on Bacteria:
According to the type of Bacteria:
According to the effectiveness against microorganism:
According to the mode of action on Bacteria:
Bacteriostatic: These antibiotics inhibit the growth & multiplication of Bacteria. Eg. Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol, Sulphonamides, Dapsone, Erythromycin, Clindamycin.
Bactericidal: These antibiotics destroy or kill all the Bacteria in the process of multiplication. Eg. Penicillin, Aminoglycosides, Cephalosporin, Fluoroquinolones, Rifampicin, Metronidazole etc.
According to the type of Bacteria:
Gram Positive: Some Antibiotics are effective mainly against Gram Positive Bacteria Eg. Penicillin.
Gram Negative: Some Antibiotics are effective mainly against Gram Negative Bacteria Eg. Streptomycin.
According to the effectiveness against microorganism:
Broad Spectrum: The Antibiotics which acts against wide range of microorganisms. Eg. Tetracycline.
Narrow Spectrum: These Antibiotics are useful against limited microorganisms. Eg. Erythromycin
Toxic Effects: Gastrointestinal irritation, Nausea, Vomiting and diarrhea may occur when given by mouth.
Skin sensitivity may develop with Penicillin or streptomycin causing rashes.
Serious toxic effect may occur due to streptomycin on the vestibular & auditory nerve causing vertigo & deafness
Drug Resistance: Many bacteria soon develops resistance to particular drug after a period of treatment, so that the bacteria will not respond to the same drug for example tubercle bacillus develops resistance to streptomycin quickly.
Super infection: The antibiotics given by mouth kill the normal bacteria inhibiting the alimentary canal and permits the over growth of other insensitive organisms which can cause serious complications. Eg. Fungus cause thrush which may go to the lungs with fatal results.
Hypersensitivity Reaction: Chemotherapeutic agents can cause Hypersensitivity reactions from mild rashes to serve anaphylactic shock. Eg. Penicillin & Sulphonamides.
Vitamin Deficiency: Alteration in vitamin formation and absorption from the bowel take place . So there is deficiency of Vitamin B complex and Vitamin K.
Anemia: In susceptible persons chloramphenicol may produce Aplastic anemia or agranulocytosis. (Action must be taken through proper history about previous drug reaction before administering penicillin sulphonamide and cephalosporin
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Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
How to Give Better Lectures: Some Tips for Doctors
Antibiotic ppt
1. ANTIBIOTICS
• Antibiotics, also called antibacterial.
• They are a type of antimicrobial drug used in
the treatment and prevention of bacterial
infections.
• They may either kill or inhibit the growth of
bacteria.
2. TYPES OF ANTIBIOTICS
• Broad spectrum antibiotics: The term broad-spectrum
antibiotic refers to an antibiotic that acts against a wide
range of disease-causing bacteria.Examples are
ampicillin, Aminoglycosides (except for streptomycin) ,
Amoxicillin, Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (Augmentin) ,
Carbapenems (e.g. imipenem) .
• Narrow spectrum antibiotics: a narrow-spectrum
antibiotic, which is effective against specific families of
bacteria. Azithromycin,Clarithromycin,Clindamycin,
Vancomycin.
4. PENICILLIN
• Sir Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in
1928.
• It is obtained from culture media of mold,
fungi known as Penicillium notatum.
• The benzyl penicillin, procaine penicillin,
phenoxymethyl penicillin are commonly used
penicillins.
• It has been used as antibiotic
6. NATURAL PENICILLINS
• The natural penicillins are obtained from
fungi Penicillium notatum and Penicillium
chrysogenum.
• The most common natural penicillin is Benzyl
penicillin –G.
• It is administered in the form of injections.
• Other example is procaine penicillin.
7. SEMISYNTHETIC PENICILLINS
• Semi synthetic penicillin is not destroyed by
stomach acidic content.
• The natural penicillins are got destroyed by
acidic secretions of the stomach.
• Example is Phenoxy methyl penicillin,
phenoxy ethyl penicillin, phenoxy propyl
penicillin.
8. SYNTHETIC PENICILLINS
• Penicillinase enzyme ( located in bacteria)
destroys the natural penicillins and semi
synthetic penicillins.
• So Synthetic penicillins are not destroyed by
penicillinase enzyme.
• Examples of synthetic penicillins are
Cloxacillin sodium, Oxacillin sodium,
Methicillin sodium.
9. BROAD SPECTRUM PENICILLIN
• Synthetic penicillins are effective only for
gram positive microorganisms.
• Therefore broad spectrum penicillin were
used.
• They are effective against both gram positive
and gram negative bacteria.
• Examples are Ampicillin, Hetacillin,
Carbencillin.
10. MECHANISM OF ACTION OF
PENICILLINS
• The penicillins are bactericidal antibiotics.
• They kill the bacteria by preventing their cell
wall formation.
• It is not so effective when the bacteria are
multiplying.
11. INDICATIONS OF PENICILLINS
• Crystalline penicillin is administered I/M , 4
hourly in severe infections and for mild
infections, dose can be reduced.
• Meningococcal meningitis infections.
• Actinomyosis and streptococcus sore throat.
• STD like syphilis and gonorrhoea.
12. SIDE EFFECTS OF PENICILLINS
• The high dose penicillins are nephrotoxic.
• The most common side effect is hypersensitivity.
The mild reaction may lead to urticarial, drug
fever.
• The most severe reaction is anaphylactic shock.
• Abscess may occur at the site of penicillin
injection due to irritation of the drug.
• Ampicillin may cause drug diarrhoea due to
continuous oral administration.
14. BENZYL PENICILLIN-G
Benzyl penicillin-G also known as crystalline penicillin-G,
penicillin-G.
It is obtained by growing strains of Penicillium notatum .
It is a natural penicillin antibiotic.
It is a white, crystalline, powder soluble in water, in
dextrose solution.
15. MECHANISM OF ACTION
It binds to specific penicillin-binding proteins
(PBPs) located inside the bacterial cell wall.
penicillin G inhibits the third and last stage of
bacterial cell wall synthesis.
They prevent the cell wall formation and
bacteria dies.
19. NURSING CARE
• To assess haematuria, oliguria since penicillin is nephrotoxic.
• Blood studies: WBC, RBC, Hb, BT,CT, Liver function test
• Bowel pattern during and after treatment.
• Respiration status, rate, wheezing, chest tightness, pain in the
chest.
• Oral penicillins to be administered empty stomach for best results.
• To evaluate absence of fever, and therapeutic response of the
treatment.
• The nurse has to assess allergic reaction before starting the
treatment.
• Skin eruptions on administration of penicillins and one week after
discontinuing of penicillin therapy.
20. AMPICILLIN
Ampicillin is a semi-synthetic derivative of penicillin .
It functions as an orally active broad-spectrum
antibiotic.
It is stable in acidic medium. It is very well absorbed
when administered orally.
It is white powder and soluble in water
21. MECHANISM OF ACTION
It binds to specific penicillin-binding proteins
(PBPs) located inside the bacterial cell wall.
It inhibits the third and last stage of bacterial
cell wall synthesis.
It prevents the cell wall formation and
bacteria dies.
22. INDICATIONS
• For treatment of infection (Respiratory, GI,
UTI and meningitis) due to E. coli, P. mirabilis,
enterococci, Shigella.
26. AMOXYCILLIN TRIHYDRATE
• Amoxicillin is semisynthetic penicillin.
• It is effective against gram positive and gram
negative microorganisms.
• It can be administered without meals because
it is stable in gastric acid.
• It is white, crystalline powder.
27. DOSAGE
• Adult: 250 mg to 1 gram , 8 hourly.
• Children: 20 mg per kg body weight , 8 hourly.
28. MECHANISM OF ACTION
• Bactericidal: Inhibits synthesis of cell wall of
sensitive organisms, causing cell death.
29. INDICATIONS
• Infections due to susceptible strains of
Haemophilus influenza, Escherichia coli,
Neisseria gonorrhoea, streptococci, non–
penicillinase-producing staphylococci
• Helicobacter pylori infection in combination
with other agents
• Post exposure prophylaxis against Bacillus
anthraces
33. CEPHALOSPORINS
• The cephalosporins are a class of β-lactam
antibiotics originally derived from the fungus
Acremonium.
• Cephalosporins are bactericidal (kill bacteria)
and work in a similar way to penicillins.
• They bind and block the action of
peptidoglycan which is a component of cell
wall.
35. FIRST GENERATION CEPHALOSPORINS
• These are useful against staphylococcal
infections.
• Examples are Cephazolin sodium,
Cephradine, Cephalridine, and Cephalothin.
36. SECOND GENERATION CEPHALOSPORINS
• The second generation cephalosporins act
against the staphylococcus and some of the
gram negative bacteria.
• This group includes Cefuroxime, Cefamandole
and Cefoxitin.
37. THIRD GENERATION CEPHALOSPORINS
• These injectable cephalosporins are effective
against gram negative bacteria.
• They have no action against staphylococci.
• The drugs are Cefotaxime, Cefsoludin, Cefdinir,
and Ceftriaxone.
38. CEFTRIAXONE
It is a third generation cephalosporins antibiotic.
It is available in the market under different trade
names like Cefaxone, Cefal etc.
Dosage: Adult 1 to 2 grams IV daily & 50 -75 mg
per kg body weight daily.
Indications: Septicaemia, typhoid, meningitis, UTI,
bone joint infections.
39. Action of mechanism
It inhibits cell-wall synthesis by
binding to 1 or more penicillin-
binding proteins.
It interferes with the synthesis of
peptidoglycan.
40. • Contraindications: Pregnancy and lactation
and hypersensitive to cephalosporins.
• Side effects: Headache, fever, chills, nausea,
vomiting, anorexia, nephrotoxicity.
• Nursing care: assess BUN, Creatinine.
Decreased urine output indicates
nephrotoxicity.
41. FOURTH GENERATION
CEPHALOSPORINS
• The fourth generation cephalosporins acts as
bactericidal.
• These drugs act at plasma binding proteins by
binding and disrupt the bacterial cell wall.
• It includes inj. Cefpirome, Inj Cefepime.
42. AMINO GLYCOSIDES
• Aminoglycosides are a class of antibiotics
used mainly in the treatment of aerobic gram-
negative bacilli infections.
• Though they are also useful against gram
positive bacteria.
• They are composed of amino sugars in
glycoside linkage.
43. • These groups following drugs:
1) Gentamycin.
2) Amikacin
3) Kanamycin
4) Tobramycin
5) Neomycin.
6) Sisomycin
7) Streptomycin
44. AMIKACIN
• It is a semi synthetic aminoglycoside.
• It is effective against gram negative bacilli.
• It is also used for the treatment of multidrug-
resistant tuberculosis.
• Availability: Injection AMEXEL, ZYCIN.
• Dosage: Adults : 15 mg per kg body weight .
In children 15 mg per kg body weight every 8-
12 hours daily.
45. • Actions: It binds ribosome sites thus prevents the protein
synthesis process.
• Indications: infections of respiratory tract, bones, joints,
skin, and soft tissue, CNS (including meningitis), peritonitis
burns, recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs).
• Contraindications: Hypersensitive to amino glycosides,
lactation , pregnancy.
• Side effects: Skin rash, nephrotoxicity, ototoxicity,
tremors, headache, nausea, vomiting.
• Nursing care: Intake and output ratio of urinalysis daily be
noted. To watch for pulse rate change and hypotension.
Deafness should be noticed by audiometry testing.
46. QUINOLONES
• A quinolone antibiotic is any member of a
large group of broad-spectrum bactericides .
• They have a bicyclic core structure related to
the compound 4-quinolone.
• They are effective against both gram positive
and gram negative bacteria.
48. CIPROFLOXACIN
• It is a fluroquinolone antimicrobial agent.
• It is effective against gram positive and gram
negative bacteria.
• It has significant post antibiotic effect due to
which it prevents regrowth of bacteria.
• Dose: Uncomplicated UTIs: 100–250 mg PO q
12 hr for 3 days or 500 mg PO daily (ER
tablets) for 3 days.
49. • Action : Ciprofloxacin promotes breakage of
double-stranded DNA in susceptible organisms
and inhibits DNA gyrase, which is essential in
reproduction of bacterial DNA.
• Indications: Uncomplicated UTIs, E. Coli
infection, Otitis externa ,STDs.
• Contraindications: Hypersensitive to
ciprofloxacin, renal impairment, epilepsy,
pregnancy, lactation, post-operative infections,
eye infections.
50. • Side effects: Vomiting , headache,
restlessness, rash, urticaria, blurred vision,
heart burn , chills.
• Nursing care: Allergy to ciprofloxacin,
Norfloxacin or other quinolones; renal
dysfunction; seizures; lactation , Arrange for
culture and sensitivity tests before beginning
therapy.
51. SULFONAMIDE
• Sulfonamides are the derivatives of Para
amino Benzoic acid (PABA) .
• These are also called as Sulfa drugs.
• Sulfa drugs were the first chemical substances
systematically used to treat and prevent
bacterial infections in humans.
• Now a days their use has been diminshed.
52. MECHANISM OF ACTION
• Para amino benzoic acid (PABA) is required for
growth and development of certain bacteria.
• When these drugs are administered , bacteria
is not able to differentiate between the Para
amino benzoic acid and Para amino benzene
sulfonamides .
• So folic acid synthesis is diminished.
• They act as bacteriostatic.
53. • Indications: UTI , ear infections, 90% effective
against the e.coli.
• Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to
sulfonamide, pregnancy , renal impairment,
skin and soft tissue and infections.
• Side effects: Nausea, vomiting, hepatitis,
glossitis, headache, confusion, anxiety,
bronchial asthma, urticaria, renal failure.
54. NURSING CARE
• Kidney function study : Blood urea, nitrogen,
Creatinine.
• To assess allergic reactions , urticaria, rash ,
dyspnoea.
• To assess intake and output ration.
• To assess sore throat, joint pain , fatigue.
• Culture and sensitivity tests.
55. TETRACYCLINE
• Tetracyclines are a class of antibiotics with
broad-spectrum activity .
• They are primarily bacteriostatic .
• It will not work for viral infections (e.g.,
common cold, flu). It will not work for colds,
flu, or other viral infections.
56. • Action: reversibly binds to the 30S ribosomal
subunit, preventing binding of tRNA to the
mRNA-ribosome complex, and thus interfering
with protein synthesis.
• Indications: Rocky Mountain spotted fever,
typhus fever and the typhus group, Q fever,
rickettsial pox and tick fever caused by
Rickettsiae. Respiratory infections.
Conjuctivitis, urethritis.
57. • Contraindications: Renal insufficiency, children
and allergic to tetracyclines.
• Side effects: nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, upset
stomach, loss of appetite.
• Nursing care: Allergy to any of the tetracyclines;
hepatic or renal impairment, pregnancy,
lactation. Culture infection before beginning drug
therapy; many resistant strains have been
identified. Do not administer during pregnancy;
drug is toxic to the fetus.
58. MACROLIDES
• Macrolides are antibiotics which structure
contains a large lactone ring.
• It includes the following drugs erythromycin,
Polymxin B, Azithromycin, Clindamycin,
Lincomycin, Spiramycin, vancomycin,
spectinomycin, aztreonam, Roxithromycin.
59. ERTHRYOMYCIN
• Erythromycin is obtained from fungi
Streptomyces erythreus.
• It is a white or yellow crystals or powder ,
bitter in taste. It is less soluble in hot water.
• Erythromycin is available as 125 mg, 250 mg,
500 mg tablets, suspension 125 mg per 5 ml.
60. • Action: It acts on bacteria by inhibiting protein
synthesis by bacterial ribosomes. The bacteria
dies for lack of protein synthesis.
• Dosage: Adults 250 to 500 mg 6 hourly.Children:
25 to 50 mg per kg body weight . In adults for
gonorrhoea 500 mg daily every 6 hourly for 7
days.
• Indications: Acne vulgaris, upper respiratory
infections, acute pneumonia, vaginitis, eczema,
soft tissue infections.
61. • Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to
erythromycin, patient with a history of liver
disease.
• Side effects: Rash, urticaria, pruritis, nausea,
vomiting, hepatotoxicity, heartburn,
abdominal pain, stomatitis, vaginitis.
62. NURSING CARE
• To assess skin eruptions, itching.
• Assess intake and output ratio
• Liver studies(AST, ALT)
• Bowel pattern, before and during treatment.
• Renal studies.
• Culture and sensitivity before treatment.
• Not to take with fruit juice.