Residential solid fuel burning contributes significantly to particulate matter (PM) levels in Irish towns without access to natural gas. Monitoring in Killarney, Enniscorthy, and Birr found: 1) PM2.5 levels were highest in the evenings, indicating impacts from residential burning. 2) Source apportionment analysis identified residential solid fuel burning as contributing 60-83% of winter PM2.5 levels. 3) Health impacts are significant, with over 1,100 premature deaths per year in Ireland associated with air pollution. A nationwide ban on smoky coal may not be sufficient without addressing other solid fuels.

1. Impact of residential solid fuel burning on air
quality and health
http://www.ucc.ie/en/crac/research/sapphire/
Prof. John Wenger
j.wenger@ucc.ie

3. Dublin Smog 1982
Mortality in a General
Hospital and Urban Air
Pollution
Ian Kelly and Luke Clancy,
Irish Medical Journal, 1984, 77, 322-4
• Cold weather, temperature inversion, low wind speeds
• Very high levels of black smoke and sulphur dioxide
• Number of deaths per day doubled during the smog
event and remained high for days afterwards

4. Ban on Smoky Coal in Dublin
1st September 1990
70% reduction in black smoke
34% reduction in sulphur dioxide
On average per year:
116 fewer respiratory deaths
243 fewer cardiovascular deaths
Clancy et al., Lancet 2002

5. From Black Smoke to Particulate Matter
In 2005 Black Smoke standards were replaced by PM limit
values in European Air Quality Directive (1999/30/EC)
PM10 Particulate Matter with diameter less than 10 microns
PM2.5 Particulate Matter with diameter less than 2.5 microns

6. PM10 enters upper
respiratory system
PM2.5 can penetrate
deep into the lungs
There is a greater
health risk associated
with exposure to
smaller particles
PM Size is Linked to Health Risk

7. Well Documented Health Effects of PM
Short term (hours, days) exposure
• respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity, such as
aggravation of asthma, respiratory symptoms
Long term (months, years) exposure
• mortality from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and
from lung cancer
Emerging
Research:
The Guardian 05/09/2018 The Guardian 16/09/2018

8. Latest EEA/WHO Reports on Air Quality
Air pollution remains the single largest
environmental health hazard in Europe
• Long-term exposure to PM2.5 responsible
for 422,000 premature deaths in Europe
• Ireland - 1,100 premature deaths in 2015,
and 12,000 Years of Life Lost
• Each year 61,000 premature deaths are
attributable to ambient air pollution
from residential heating in Europe

9. • What is the contribution of residential solid fuel burning
to PM levels in Ireland?
The Burning Question

10. What is the contribution of each fuel type?
Sod Peat (Turf)
“Smokeless” Coal
Wood
Bituminous (Smoky) Coal
Peat Briquettes

11. Source Apportionment of Particulate Matter in
Urban and Rural Residential Areas of Ireland
(SAPPHIRE)
1 April 2014 – 31 June 2017
http://www.ucc.ie/en/crac/research/sapphire/

12. • Outside the Smoky Coal
Ban Area (pop. < 15,000)
• No natural gas supply
• High usage of solid fuels
(coal, peat/turf & wood)
SAPPHIRE Monitoring Locations
• Killarney, Co. Kerry (Nov & Dec 2014)
• Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford (Jan & Feb 2015)
• Birr, Co. Offaly (Nov & Dec 2015)
K
E
B

13. • Site located in grounds of Enniscorthy Library
Enniscorthy

14. Instrument Parameter(s) measured Temporal
resolution
Aerosol time-of-flight mass
spectrometer (TSI model 3800)
Single particle chemical
composition (100-3000 nm)
1 min
Scanning mobility particle sizer
(TSI model 3081)
Particle number concentration
(10-800 nm)
3 min
Optical Particle Sizer (TSI model
3330)
Particle number concentration
(300-10000 nm)
3 min
TEOM (Thermo Electron model RP
1400a)
PM2.5 mass concentration 30 min
Thermal-optical carbon analyser
(Sunset Inc. model 3rd generation)
Elemental and organic carbon
mass concentrations
2 hr
7-Wavelength Aethalometer
(Model AE33, Magee Scientific)
Black Carbon concentration 1 min
High volume sampler (Digitel
model DHA 80)
Collection of particulate
matter (PM2.5)
6 hr
Key Instrumentation

15. PM2.5 Mass Concentration: Enniscorthy
• Average = 29 µg/m3; Range = 0.2-237 µg/m3
• PM2.5 over 50 µg/m3 most evenings

16. 250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
MassConcentration(µg/m
3
)
23222120191817161514131211109876543210
Hour of Day
Enniscorthy
Average 24 hour profile for PM2.5
• Peak in evening hours indicative of solid fuel burning

17. Aerosol Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometer
• Measures chemical
composition of single
particles in real-time
• Enables monitoring of
particles from various
sources continuously
• Uses a mass spectral
fingerprint for different
sources

18. Realistic fuel burning experiments
• Solid fuel stove
• House in remote location in
Co. Tipperary

19. PEAT
PEAT
WOOD
COAL
COAL
EC
Sulfate
Potassium
Assigned on the basis of combustion
experiments
COAL → EC & some potassium, sulfate
dominates negative spectra
PEAT → EC & OC fragments, some
potassium
WOOD → Potassium dominates
positive spectra
EC
OC
WOOD
“Fingerprints” of Solid Fuel Combustion

20. Particle sources: Enniscorthy
• Pollution levels much higher at low wind speeds

21. Particle sources: Enniscorthy

22. ATOFMS: Source Contribution to PM2.5
• 83% due to residential solid fuel burning

23. ATOFMS: Source Contribution to PM2.5
• 72% due to residential solid fuel burning

24. ATOFMS: Source Contribution to PM2.5
• 60% due to residential solid fuel burning

25. • Residential solid fuel burning contributes 60-83% of PM2.5
in Killarney/Enniscorthy/Birr in winter
• This situation is likely replicated in tens of small towns
across Ireland
Summary

27. Summary and Perspectives
• From a health and environment perspective it makes
sense to support a nationwide ban on smoky coal
• But, how well will it work, particularly in areas where gas
is not available?
• Peat and wood burning are bigger contributors to PM2.5
• A nationwide ban on smoky coal may not deliver the
expected improvements in air quality
• Other strategies should also be investigated…

28. Linking Air Quality and Health

29. Acknowledgements
John Sodeau
Ian O’Connor Eoin McGillicuddy Jovanna Arndt
Paul BuckleyStig Hellebust
http://www.ucc.ie/en/crac/research/sapphire/
Killarney site assistance
• Brendan Dunne (HSE)
Enniscorthy site assistance
• Brendan Cooney (WCC)
• Ian Plunkett (WCC)
• Patrick Malone (EPA)
Birr site assistance
• Sarah Delahunt (OCC)
• Marian Healy (OCC)

30. Extra Slides

31. KILLARNEY
Total Particles: 567,963
ENNISCORTHY
Total Particles: 1,898,614
BIRR
Total Particles: 1,957,150
Particle
Category Particle Class
Particle
Number
% of Total
Ionised
% ATOFMS
Mass
Particle
Number
% of Total
Ionised
% ATOFMS
Mass
Particle
Number
% of Total
Ionised
% ATOFMS
Mass
Density
(g/cm3)
Peat
EC-OC 92591 16 19 411498 22 20 242243 12 10 1.5
K-EC-OC 82260 14 15 255961 13 6.5 393044 20 17 1.5
K-Na-EC 45514 8 10 72565 4 4.5 52564 3 2 1.5
OC-PAH*
N/A N/A N/A See Peat/Coal See Peat/Coal See Peat/Coal 30363 2 1 1.5
PAH-OC*
N/A N/A N/A See Peat/Coal See Peat/Coal See Peat/Coal 64991 3 3 1.5
PAH N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 165106 8 8 1.5
Wood
K 117365 21 22 409517 22 23 254218 13 17 1.8
K-OC N/A N/A N/A 5092 0.3 0.5 241188 12 10 1.8
K-PAH High N/A N/A N/A 21800 1 1.4 15756 3 3 1.8
K-PAH Low N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 60715 5 5 1.8
Coal
EC(C1)-K 46231 8 8 284210 15 14 120665 6 5 1.5
EC(C3)-K N/A N/A N/A 20944 1 2 40308 2 2 1.5
K-EC 61702 11 12 28969 1.5 3 998 0.05 0.05 1.5
Peat/Coal
OC-PAH*
N/A N/A N/A 57187 3 4 See Peat See Peat See Peat 1.5
PAH-OC*
N/A N/A N/A 138976 7 8 See Peat See Peat See Peat 1.5
Amine Amines 36924 6 7 113673 6 7 93135 5 6 1.5
Traffic
EC-traffic 3584 0.6 0.5 5193 0.3 0.3 N/A N/A N/A 1.5
Ca 3688 0.6 0.4 7826 0.4 0.6 9544 0.5 0.6 1.5
Sea salt Sea salt 66006 12 5 44584 2 4.5 105217 5 8 2.2
Other
Al 1034 0.2 0.5 N/A N/A N/A 920 0.05 3.7
Ba 1368 0.2 0.3 268 0.01 N/A N/A N/A 1.5
Fe 2127 0.4 0.6 N/A N/A N/A 407 0.02 3.6
Li 218 0.04 0.1 2928 0.2 N/A N/A N/A 2
Mg N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 3775 0.2 2.2
Pb N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 110 0.01 4.3
V 532 0.09 0.2 115 0.01 2539 0.1 0.2 3.1
Zn 97 0.02 0.1 63 0.003 N/A N/A N/A 3.8

35. 120
100
80
60
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20
0
ConcentrationPM2.5(µgm
-3
)
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Date & Time
PM2.5 (2 Hour Mean)
24 Hour Mean PM2.5
TEOM
PM2.5 mass concentration
• PM2.5 up to 10 times higher during evening hours

36. Hourly variation of PM2.5
• Strong diurnal pattern

37. SEA SALT
TRAFFIC
AMINE/
AMMONIUM
Na
Cl
NaCl2
Na2Cl3 Sea salt characteristics:
→ sodium & chloride peaks, no EC
Traffic characteristics:
→ calcium & phosphate (lubricating
oil), some EC
Phosphate
Calcium
Ammonium/amine characteristics:
→ ammonium, trimethylamine, OC,
large sulfate peak in negative spectra
Ammonium
Mass Spectra: Other Particle Types

38. SAPPHIRE: Particle Number
Concentrations
15/04/16
SAPPHIRE Meeting: ATOFMS (Jovanna
Arndt)
38
Size range: 10 - 480 nm Size range: 300 nm - 10 µm
• Clear evening peak in average particle number concentrations
• Enniscorthy = largest number concentrations

39. SAPPHIRE: Particle Number
Concentrations: Size Resolved
15/04/16
SAPPHIRE Meeting: ATOFMS (Jovanna
Arndt)
39
• Clear evening peak in particle number
concentrations
• Particles small – peak occurs between
70-100 nm

42. PM2.5 Mass Concentration: Killarney
• Average = 14 µg/m3; Range = 1.4-125 µg/m3
• PM2.5 up to 10 times higher during evening hours

43. PM2.5 Mass Concentration: Birr
• Average = 8 µg/m3; Range = 0.1-61 µg/m3
• Stormy weather resulted in lower mass concentrations

44. Particle sources: Birr
peat 26% wood 23% coal 5% amines 5%

45. Ammonium/amine particles
• Condensation of agricultural emissions on
peat/wood/coal particles, especially at low wind speeds

46. Diurnal Variation in PM2.5
• PM2.5 levels peak in evening

48. Particle sources: Killarney
peat 31% wood 17% coal 16% amines 5%

49. TEOM
Sunset
ECOC
Elemental and Organic Carbon (EC/OC)
• Majority of PM2.5 during night-time pollution events is
carbonaceous aerosol

50. Low winds – Local sources High winds – Regional sources
Influence of Meteorology
• Low wind speed – local emissions dominate
• High wind speed – regional sources dominate

51. Particulate Matter
PM10 - Particulate Matter with diameter less than 10 microns
PM2.5 - Particulate Matter with diameter less than 2.5 microns

52. • State-of-the-art analytical techniques used to measure chemical
species and apportion PM mass to specific sources
Cork Harbour Study 2008-2011
Healy et al., Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 2010
PM2.5
average
(mg/m3)
Solid
Fuel
Burning
%
Traffic
%
Other
Local
Sources
%
Regional
Sources
%
August
2008
9.7 5 23 24 26
February
2009
16.2 50 19 21 10
Kourtchev et al., Science of the Total Environment, 2011
Dall’Osto et al., Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 2013

53. • Site located in grounds of Community Hospital
Killarney

54. Birr
• Site located in grounds of Offaly County Council Yard

55. Transported
sea salt
Killarney
• Low wind speed – local emissions dominate
• High wind speed – regional sources dominate

56. Extent of Bituminous Coal Ban