The document provides an overview of human origins and early civilizations. It describes key findings that show humans originated in Africa, including early hominid fossils in Ethiopia and Tanzania. Early humans were hunter-gatherers who developed tools and fire. The Neolithic Revolution led to agriculture beginning 10,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent. Early civilizations then emerged in Mesopotamia with the Sumerians, in Egypt along the Nile River, and in the Indus River valley. These civilizations developed writing, social hierarchies, cities, and advanced technologies.

1. © 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnan
1­1: Human Origins in Africa
• 1970’s: archeologist Mary Leakey found prehistoric footprints like that of modern humans in Tanzania (East Africa)
o made by australopithecines (type of hominid­ walks upright)
• In Ethiopia, complete skeleton of adult female hominid “Lucy” from 3.5 million yrs ago
• Early hominids had opposable thumbs and walking upright helped travel distances and carry things
• Invention of tools, mastery over fire, development of languages all occurred during the Stone Age
• Earlier and longer part of Stone Age called Paleolithic Age (2,500,000­8000BCE)
o Oldest stone chopping tools date back to this era; during the Ice Age
o Religious beliefs centered around nature; believed in afterlive
• Neolithic Age (8000­3000BCE/ dates vary in places)
o People learned to polish stone tools, make pottery, grow crops, raise animals
• Before australopithecines vanished, new hominids (Homo habilis) appeared in East Africa
o Used lava rock tools to cut meat and crack open bones = made survival easier
• 1.6 million yrs ago, before Homo habilis left, Homo erectus appeared
o more intelligent and adaptable than Homo habilis; used intelligence to develop technology; skillful hunters with
sophisticated tools; first hominids to migrate to India, China, SE Asia, EU
o developed beginning of spoken language; first to use fire
• Homo erectus evolved to Homo sapiens
o Had larger brains
• Neanderthals in SW Asia and Europe survived for 170,000 yrs and vanished 30,000 yrs ago
o Religious beliefs; shelters
• Cro­Magnons emerge 40,000­8,000 BCE: identical to modern humans
o N. Africa ­> Europe, Asia; made tools with specialized uses; planned hunts; spoken language = cooperation
• Cave paintings by primitive people: European and Asian show hunting and daily activities; American and Australian
more symbolic = sympathetic magic
1­2: Humans Try to Control Nature
• 40,000 yrs ago, Cro­Magnons same as modern man
• Paleolithic era, mostly nomads= hunter­gatherers; crafted crude tools i.e. sharpened sticks to aid hunting/gathering
• Made artistic creations: jewelry, sculptures, cave paintings
• Neolithic Revolution: 10,000 yrs ago, = agricultural revolution (climate change was key reason)
• Early farming methods: slash­and­burn, domestication of animals
• Took place in Fertile Crescent (NE Iraq/Mesopotamia)

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• Farming develops independently in Africa, China, Central America…
o Catal Huyuk and Jarmo important agri. sites for studying Neolithic Age
 Permanent settlements created, benefits= surplus food, specialized workers
 Disadvantages= floods/fire/drought/disease destroy village; invasion by neighbors
1­3: Civilization
• Villages become cities:
o Economic changes: more cultivation­>elaborate irrigation systems built; food surplus=specialization; wheel and sail
improved trade
o Social: social classes formed; religion more organized­>worshipped gods with power over nature
• Civilization characteristics: 1. Advanced cities 2. Specialized workers 3. Complex institutions 4. Record keeping 5.
Advanced technology 6. Art and Architecture
Sumer (Ur in bold):
• Advanced cities: center of trade for larger area; large population
o Defined social classes: rulers/ priests on top; trade w. bartering
• Spec. workers: artisans; merchants; scribes; soldiers; teachers; metalworkers; priests; gov. officials; peasants
• Complex inst.: formal gov. with laws; priests with religious/political power; education system (for scribes)
• Record keeping: cuneiform tablets with business transactions, hist. events, customs, traditions; calendar
• Adv. Tech: ox­drawn plows; irrigation systems; pottery eating supplies; bronze weapons; body armor
o Roads, pottery
• Art and Architecture: ziggurat(massive pyramid temple), temples, temple gates, storage for grain
2­1: Mesopotamia
• Mesopotamia = “land between the rivers”­ Tigris and Euphrates
o Environmental challenge; unpredictable flooding; no natural barriers; limited natural resources
o Solutions: irrigation ditches; city walls; traded worked materials for raw materials
• Sumerians had city­states each with own gov. (Uruk, Kish, Lagaash, Umma, Ur)
o Each had own ziggurat
o Rulers (military leaders) and priests share control: priests mostly (demanded crop taxes)
 Military leaders had dynasties; shift from priests to military rulers
• Cultural diffusion: new ideas spread to other cities
• Sumerians = polytheistic (see English)
o No joy after death­ afterworld is bad place
o Women priests, women had many rights: landholding, read, write, scribes
• Technology: invented wheel, sail, plow, first to use bronze, arithmetic, geometry, base 60 number system, modern time
units come from it
• Architectural innovations: arches, columns, ramps, pyramid ziggurat
• First to develop system of writing (cuneiform) on tablets: written with pointy triangular tipped reeds

3. © 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnan
• 3000­2000 BCE, Sumer city­states constantly at war with each other and could no longer ward of attacks of people of
surrounding hills/deserts
• Sumer never recovered from attacks and succeeding rulers adopted Sumerian culture to their own needs
• c. 2350 BCE, conqueror Sargon with army from Akkad (city­state N. of Sumer) defeated Sumer
o Akkadians already had adopted most of Sumerian culture; Sargon’s conquests spread the culture further beyond
Tigris­Euphrates Valley
• By taking control of N. and S. Mesopotamia, Sargon created 1st empire
o At peak, Akkadian Empire controlled Mediterranean Coast in the west to Iran (today) in the east
o Lasted only 200 yrs before decline
• c. 2000 BCE, nomadic warriors (Amorites) invaded Mesopotamia and overwhelmed Sumerians
• established capital at Babylon along Euphrates River
• Babylonian Empire reached peak during reign of Hammurabi (1792­1750 BCE)
o Hammurabi’s Code of laws: first single, uniform code of laws written down in stone all over empire
o 282 specific laws many related to property issues; protected women and children from unfair treatment
o diff. punishment for diff. social classes; principle of retaliation (eye for an eye…)
o gov. responsible for society’s actions
• 2 centuries after Hammurabi’s reign, Babylonian empire fell to Kassites
2­3: Pyramids on the Nile
• Egypt united into single kingdom early on
• Nile flows N.: civilization arose along fertile Nile banks
• Nile flooded regularly: necessary for life; deserts as natural barriers
• River travel common­ ended at 1st cataract (rapids)
•
• winds blow upstream (N to S) so you can travel by sailboat upriver and down
• 5000 BCE farming villages with own rituals, god, ruler
• 3200 BCE­ 2 separate kingdoms: lower and upper Egypt
• eventually united (most likely) by King Narmer
•
• Old Kingdom: in Mesopotamia, kings represent gods; in Egypt, kings=gods=pharaohs
o Theocracy: pharaoh @ center of religion and gov.
o Pharaoh had eternal life force (ka): pyramids to protect pharaoh in afterlife
• Didn’t use wheel
• Early Egyptians polytheistic: Re (sun god), Osiris (dead), Isis (mother/wife goddess)
• Believed in an afterlife where you would be judged
• Mummification of elites led to advanced medical techniques
• King, queen, royals at top of soc. Pyramid
o Priests, wealthy landowners, gov. officials, army commanders
 Peasants and laborers­ slavery came later
 Egyptians not locked into social class­ couple move up esp. if know to read/write
o Women had many of the same rights as men
• Innovations:
o Scribes developed flexible writing system = hieroglyphics (pics changed from representing ideas to letters)
 Wrote on papyrus reeds

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o Developed calendar for planting w/ 365 days in a year
o Arithmetic for taxes
o Geometry for pyramid building
o Medicine for healing bones, surgery, check heart rate…
• Decline of Old Kingdom
o Strong pharaohs regained control during Middle Kingdom (2040­1640 BCE)
o Hyksos from Palestine invaded and ruled Egypt (1630­1523 BCE)
o New Kingdom – Egypt rose again
3.1 The Indo­Europeans
o Group of Nomadic ppl from Steppes dry grass lands
o Primarily pastoral (herded)
o Tamed horses and rose light 2 wheeled chariots
o Lived in tribes that spoke forms of indo­european languages­
o ancestor of many modern languages
o Nomads migrated in all directions (1700­1200 BCE)
o By 2000 BCE the Hittites occupied Anatolia (Turkey)
o High rocky plateau rich in minerals timber agriculture
o Separate Hittite city states formed empire in 1650
o Capital Hattusas
o Adopted Akkadian (to speak w/ foreigners) after conquering Akkadian Babylon
o Hittites dominated SW Asia­ 450 yrs (occupied Babylon and fought w/ Assyria)
o Signed treaty w/ Assyrians to help each other
o Excelled in war technology­ chariots, iron weapons, armor
o Fell in 1190 BC as part of a great wave of invasions from N. (capital burned)
3­3 Seafaring Traders
o Minoans: powerful sea traders in the eastern Mediterranean
o Exported goods, art and culture (incl. architecture, burial customs, religious rituals): major influence on Greece
o Minoans seem to be peaceful
o Named after King Minos who owned a minotaur which he kept in a labyrinth
o Women held a higher rank than in most neighboring lands
o Great Mother Earth Goddess ruler of gods of Crete (Minoan island); many priestesses
o Sacrificed mostly animals but also a couple humans
o Mysterious end: giant quakes in 1500’s BCEs­ rebuilt palace twice, then volcano; never quite recovered
Phoenicians
o After Minoan decline, most powerful traders
o Never united into country; only city­states(e.x. Sidon and Tyre); cities were great trading centers
o Remarkable shipbuilders and sea­farers: went around Africa and Asia
o Produced famous and expensive red­purple dye, papyrus, built colonies along N. African coast and S. Europe coast
o Greatest Phoenician colony=Carthage in N. Africa
o Developed phonetic writing system with letters (word alphabet from 1st 2 Phoenician letters)
o Introduced writing system to trading partners
o Eastern cities were captured by the Assyrians then Phoenicians came under control of the Babylonians and Persians
3­4 The Origins of Judaism
o Phoenicians lived in a region later called Palestine along with Philistines
o Canaan­ ancient home of the Hebrews (Jews) in this area. Land promised by God to the Hebrew ppl
o Ancient Palestine’s location = cultural crossroads of ancient world.
o God choose Abraham to be father of Jews, he was a shepherd in Ur, Mesopotamia and was ordered by god to move w/
ppl to Canaan in 1800 BCE
o Descendants of Abe move to Egypt in 1600 BCE b/c of drought and famine. Given places of honor at first in Egyptian

5. © 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnan
kingdom but later forced into slavery. Flee Egypt btw 1300­1200 BCE during the EXODUS remembered each yr. during
Passover.
o Torah says that Moses (all Jew male babies were supposed to be killed @ this time but his mom hid him and he was
adopted by an Egyptian princess) led Hebrews out of slavery
o Jews traveled across of Sinai Peninsula and Moses went to top of Mt. Sinai to pray. Yahweh (God) spoke to him and
gave him the 10 commandments­ they formed a new covenant = god protected Hebrews who protected his
commandments.
o Hebrews return to Canaan after death of Moses + changed from Nomads to settled ppl.
o Loosely organized into 12 self­governing tribes, they would unite in times of emergency and god would send
them a judge (1 was a woman)
o Women only raised children
o 10 commanded resembled Hammurabi’s code but punishments softened by god’s mercy.
o Ethical Monotheism: emphasis on right conduct and worship of 1 god.
o Hebrews after settlement in Canaan/Palestine expanded north and south.
o Tribe of Judah (last tribe left of original 12)­ Hebrews came to be Jews and the religion Judaism
o 1000 BCE Hebrews united under Kings (Kingdom of Israel)
o Saul: chosen for driving out a Philistine invasion, but became greedy/jealous
o David: son­in­law of Saul, very popular, united tribes, Jerusalem = capital, established dynasty
o Solomon: son of David, most powerful Hebrew King, built trading empire w/ Hiram­ King of Tyre (Phoenician
city), beautified Jerusalem w/ great temple
 After death­ revolt in N. part of kingdom
 Israel becomes Israel in N. and Judah in S. (sometimes friends sometimes enemies)
• Both began paying tribute to Assyria to ensure peace w/ them
• 725 BCE Assyrians seize Samaria­ capital of Israel, and Israel falls to Assyrians
• Assyrians lose power to Neo­Babylonians
• Nebuchadnezzar­ gets Syria and Palestine and Israel and seizes Judah (destroys Solomon’s
temple­ many survivors exiled to Babylon)
• Persian King Cyrus conquers Babylon and lets exiles return to Judah/ rebuild temple
4.1 Egyptian and Nubian Empires
o After prosperity of Middle Kingdom Egypt loses control­ Hyksos take over and Hebrews settle there during this time
o Egyptians resent Jews but Hyksos want them
o 1600 BCE Pharaohs kick out Hyksos and restore power. Hebrews enslaved until Exodus
o Nubian Kingdom of Kush emerges as a power
o Pharaohs of New Kingdom 1500­1000 BCE built the biggest/powerfulest/wealthiest empire than before
o Hatshepsut­ queen Pharaoh encouraged trade rather than war
o Stepson, Thutmose very warlike: invaded Palestine, Syria, and part of Nubia
o Egyptians and Hittites fight over Palestine but Pharaoh Ramses II made peace treaty w/ Hittites for 1 century
o Build many royal tombs temples and palaces in the valley of kings.
o Ramses II carved giant statues in red sandstone cliffs.
o Decline: attacked by “sea­ppls” tribes of Palestine rebel against Egyptian overlords, Libyan raids in west
o Egypt never regains previous power­ break apart and fell
o 950­730 BCE Libyan Pharaohs rule Egypt­ adopted Egyptian culture
o Kingdom of Kush esp. capital Napata becomes center of cultural spread
o w/ Egypt decline Kush regains independence/power and sought to capture Libyan Egypt
o Kush King Piyanki overthrew Libyan dynasty and united entire Nile Valley.
o Then Assyrians conquer Egypt and Kushites retreat south to Meroë which became active in Trade b/c of large amt of
natural resources then after 4 centuries begins to decline after Aksum kindom in N. takes over trade.
4.2 Assyrian Empire
o 850 BCE Assyria acquires large empire w/ advanced military supplies­ greatest military power in S.W. asia for a time

6. © 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnan
o glorified military everything (strengths, weapons, technology, strategy)
o by 650 BCE Assyria defeats Syria, Palestine, and Babylonia (not yet neo), had local governors report to a central
authority= model of gov.
o governors brought in tribute and taxes
o King Sennacherib (who burnt Babylon) also established capital at Nineveh along Tigris River. Nineveh had 1 of ancient
world’s largest libraries (King Ashurbanipal’s) incl. Epic of Gilgamesh.
o After Ashurbanipal’s death Nineveh fell to Medes and Chaldeans and others who burned the city but many tablets
survived
o Assyrians fall
o Then Chaldeans make Babylon their capital and King Nebuchadnezzar restores city with hanging gardens of Babylon, 7
tiered ziggurat, and astronomers, and wall around city.
3­3 Persian Empire
• Cyrus, Persian king began to conquer (but showed mercy and honored local customs)
o grandson Darius brought stability to empire and conquered into Afghanistan and India and to Egypt and Anatolia in the
West
o Darius divided empire into 20 provinces to govern it
 Brilliant administrator but didn’t show same respect for local culture
o Installed governor called satrap to rule locally and appointed military leaders, tax collectors, and spies to check on stuff
o Royal Road ran across empire
o Borrowed coins from the Lydians
o Conquered by Alexander the Great
o After Alexander’s death (Early) split into 3 empires:
 Seleucid (largest), Parthian, and Sassanid
o Religion of Zoroastrianism founded by Zoroaster
 Teaches that the earth is a battleground with a great struggle between spirit of good and evil
 Each person takes part in this struggle and is judged in death by how well they do
 Monotheistic: Ahura Mazda
o After Muslim conquest of Persia, Zoroastrianism declined­ some took it to India