This document summarizes a study on the rate of change of mangrove forests in Calabar South, Nigeria between 1970 and 2011. The study analyzed multi-temporal image data from 1970, 1986, and 2011 to map changes in mangrove area over time. It also examined the number and volume of mangrove trees exploited by local communities. The results showed that the rate of mangrove area change was -2.75 km2 between 1970-1990 and -32.12 km2 between 1991-2011. The area of Nypa palm, an invasive species, increased from 3.04 km2 between 1970-1990 to 31.86 km2 between 1991-2011. On average, 6225 mangrove trees were exploited annually,
Species Diversity and Above-ground Carbon Stock Assessments in Selected Mangr...Innspub Net
Mangrove ecosystems are known for being the rainforest of the sea. Philippines is bestowed with this naturally rich mangrove ecosystem with diverse floral and faunal species. Despite this natural abundance, mangrove ecosystems are subjected to natural and human induced degradations specifically conversion to fish shrimp ponds that resulted in diminution aside from its effect on terrestrial and oceanic carbon cycling and could also affect its important role in terms of terrestrial and oceanic carbon cycling. This study is conducted to determine
the mangrove diversity, distribution and the above-ground biomass and C-stocks in Glan and Malapatan, Sarangani Province. Purposive sampling is implemented in establishing the plots on both sites. Results show eight (8) mangrove species belonging to four (4) families are observed in both areas. Data also reveal that the mangrove ecosystem in Glan Padidu, Glan is undisturbed. Rhizophora apiculata and Sonneratia alba are found to be dominant on the two sites. Because of the large tree girths and high density of species observed on the studied areas, both forests have the potential to sequester and store large amount of atmospheric carbon. Thus, this study quantifies mangrove tree biomass in view of carbon trading as significant in lessening the effects of global warming.
Reforestation is one of the Philippines’ government efforts to restore and rehabilitate degraded mangrove ecosystems. Although there is recovery of the ecosystem in terms of vegetation, the recovery of closely-linked faunal species in terms of community structure is still understudied. This research investigates the community structure of mangrove crabs under two different management schemes: protected mangroves and reforested mangroves. The transect-plot method was employed in each management scheme to quantify the vegetation, crab assemblages and environmental variables. Community composition of crabs and mangrove trees were compared between protected and reforested mangroves using non-metric multi-dimensional scaling and analysis of similarity in PRIMER 6. Chi-squared was used to test the variance of sex ration of the crabs. Canonical Correspondence Analysis was used to determine the relationship between crabs and environmental parameters. A total of twelve species of crabs belonging to six families were identified in protected mangroves while only four species were documented in reforested mangroves. Perisesarma indiarum and Baptozius vinosus were the most dominant species in protected and reforested mangrove, respectively. Univariate analysis of variance of crab assemblage data revealed significant differences in crab composition and abundance between protected mangroves and from reforested mangroves (P<0.05).><0.05).Environmental factors and human intervention had contributed to the difference in crab assemblages in mangrove ecosystems.
Resource management of coconut crab (Birgus latro) in liwo island, north malu...Innspub Net
Coconut crab (Birgus latro) has ecological and economical value that only found in the islands which influenced by the Pacific and Indian Ocean currents, including Liwo Island. The research was done to describe a resource management of coconut crab (Birgus latro) in Liwo island according to the distribution and biological analysis of coconut crab. Data sampling was conducted in February-September 2013, data collection consisted of littoral rainforest vegetation, microhabitat and biological condition of coconut crab (thoracic length, weight, sex and gonad maturity). The result showed that Liwo Island microhabitat condition support the presence of coconut crab. Species diversity of littoral forest vegetation was low. Vegetation was dominated by Calophyllum inophyllum, Erythrina variegata, Areca catechu, Maga (Magnoliopsida) and Pandanus tectorius. Coconut crab population size was 1153 crabs with population density 5 crabs/Ha. The range of thorax length 3-66.09 mm with average of thorax length 23.46 mm. Growth pattern was included in allometric minor. This population was dominated by adult coconut crab with developing reproduction organ followed by functionally mature reproduction organ. A smaller catchable amount of coconut crab indicated that the resource management sustainability was needed to regulate catchable amount and size that involved of local community and relevant institutions.
Species Diversity and Above-ground Carbon Stock Assessments in Selected Mangr...Innspub Net
Mangrove ecosystems are known for being the rainforest of the sea. Philippines is bestowed with this naturally rich mangrove ecosystem with diverse floral and faunal species. Despite this natural abundance, mangrove ecosystems are subjected to natural and human induced degradations specifically conversion to fish shrimp ponds that resulted in diminution aside from its effect on terrestrial and oceanic carbon cycling and could also affect its important role in terms of terrestrial and oceanic carbon cycling. This study is conducted to determine
the mangrove diversity, distribution and the above-ground biomass and C-stocks in Glan and Malapatan, Sarangani Province. Purposive sampling is implemented in establishing the plots on both sites. Results show eight (8) mangrove species belonging to four (4) families are observed in both areas. Data also reveal that the mangrove ecosystem in Glan Padidu, Glan is undisturbed. Rhizophora apiculata and Sonneratia alba are found to be dominant on the two sites. Because of the large tree girths and high density of species observed on the studied areas, both forests have the potential to sequester and store large amount of atmospheric carbon. Thus, this study quantifies mangrove tree biomass in view of carbon trading as significant in lessening the effects of global warming.
Reforestation is one of the Philippines’ government efforts to restore and rehabilitate degraded mangrove ecosystems. Although there is recovery of the ecosystem in terms of vegetation, the recovery of closely-linked faunal species in terms of community structure is still understudied. This research investigates the community structure of mangrove crabs under two different management schemes: protected mangroves and reforested mangroves. The transect-plot method was employed in each management scheme to quantify the vegetation, crab assemblages and environmental variables. Community composition of crabs and mangrove trees were compared between protected and reforested mangroves using non-metric multi-dimensional scaling and analysis of similarity in PRIMER 6. Chi-squared was used to test the variance of sex ration of the crabs. Canonical Correspondence Analysis was used to determine the relationship between crabs and environmental parameters. A total of twelve species of crabs belonging to six families were identified in protected mangroves while only four species were documented in reforested mangroves. Perisesarma indiarum and Baptozius vinosus were the most dominant species in protected and reforested mangrove, respectively. Univariate analysis of variance of crab assemblage data revealed significant differences in crab composition and abundance between protected mangroves and from reforested mangroves (P<0.05).><0.05).Environmental factors and human intervention had contributed to the difference in crab assemblages in mangrove ecosystems.
Resource management of coconut crab (Birgus latro) in liwo island, north malu...Innspub Net
Coconut crab (Birgus latro) has ecological and economical value that only found in the islands which influenced by the Pacific and Indian Ocean currents, including Liwo Island. The research was done to describe a resource management of coconut crab (Birgus latro) in Liwo island according to the distribution and biological analysis of coconut crab. Data sampling was conducted in February-September 2013, data collection consisted of littoral rainforest vegetation, microhabitat and biological condition of coconut crab (thoracic length, weight, sex and gonad maturity). The result showed that Liwo Island microhabitat condition support the presence of coconut crab. Species diversity of littoral forest vegetation was low. Vegetation was dominated by Calophyllum inophyllum, Erythrina variegata, Areca catechu, Maga (Magnoliopsida) and Pandanus tectorius. Coconut crab population size was 1153 crabs with population density 5 crabs/Ha. The range of thorax length 3-66.09 mm with average of thorax length 23.46 mm. Growth pattern was included in allometric minor. This population was dominated by adult coconut crab with developing reproduction organ followed by functionally mature reproduction organ. A smaller catchable amount of coconut crab indicated that the resource management sustainability was needed to regulate catchable amount and size that involved of local community and relevant institutions.
Quantification of deadwood littered by Acacia spp. in semi-arid ecosystems of...Innspub Net
Deadwood (DW) is an important carbon component for conservation and management of biodiversity resources. They are ubiquitous in many semi-arid ecosystems although its estimation is still posing lots of challenges. At Chimwaga woodland in Dodoma Region of Central Tanzania, seasonal quantification of DW produced by two Acacia spp. was done to evaluate the influence of each tree species, Dbh and canopy area on DW biomass and to determine their ecological role in conservation of semi-arid ecosystem. Both purposive and random sampling techniques were used in the course of a completely randomized design (CRD). Thirty trees from each species of Acacia tortilis and Acacia nilotica were studied. Results portray that DW biomass was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the dry season than in the rain season whereby A. tortilis produced 669.0 ± 135.90kg DM/ha (dry season) and only 74.3 ± 135.90kg DM/ha (rain season) while A. nilotica produced 426.1 ± 135.90kg DM/ha (dry season) and 36.5 ± 135.90kg DM/ha (rain season). DW biomass did not correlate significantly (P > 0.05) with Dbh and canopy area. Inter-specific interactions were encountered from experimental areas where DW was littered that facilitated ecosystem balance in semi-arid areas. This information is important for estimating amount of dead wood biomass required to be retained in the forest provided that, at the expense of ecology, they are refuge for arthropods, fungi, bryophytes and other important soil microbes representing primary components of Biodiversity in semi-arid ecosystems.
Diversity and species composition of mangroves species in Pilar, Siargao Isla...Innspub Net
Mangroves are considered as the most significant components of the coastal ecosystem and among the most productive and biologically complex ecosystems on the planet. Assessment of mangrove species plays a critical role in the preservation and protection of the mangroves forest. The study aimed to assess the mangrove species in Pilar, Siargao Island. The belt transect was employed with a dimension of modified 10 m x 12 m and was installed per quadrat. Eight mangrove species were identified under four families, and these are B. sexanguela, C. decandra, R. apiculata, R. mucronata, A. alba, A. marina, L. littorea, and X. granatum. One species, C. decandra is categorized by the IUCN as a near-threatened state. Results from the mangroves vegetation structure show that R. apiculata got the highest relative frequency (26.32%), density (35.46%), and dominance (55.08%) therefore; it has the highest importance value (116.85%). This further implies that R. apiculata is the most important and acclimated mangrove species in the study area. The species diversity in Pilar, Siargao Island falls under very low diversity (H’=1.63) which might be attributed to some human-related disturbances. Thus, further consideration in future planning and conservation to increase the resiliency of the mangrove ecosystem is needed.
Adapting to climate change and variability: Tropical forests and wildfireCIFOR-ICRAF
Fire is part of the natural ecological processes in tropical forests, and is also widely used as a tool in managing forests. But as the climate of the world changes and becomes hotter and climate events like droughts become more extreme, many tropical forest areas could be impacted by an increase in fire activity.
In this presentation, CIFOR scientist Hety Herawati gives an overview of the interaction between climate change, wildfire and tropical forests, and gives a number of recommendations for helping both people and forests adapt to a future in which fire danger is increased. She gave this presentation at the IUFRO Conference on Forests for People held on 22-24 May 2012 in Alpbach, Austria, which was attended by approximately 200 participants from around 40 countries.
A High Grassland Bee Community in Southern Brazil: Survey and Annotated Check...Label-ha
Author(s): Denise Monique Dubet da Silva Mouga and Paulo Nogueira Neto
http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.2317/0022-8567-85.4.295
http://label-univille.blogspot.com.br/2013/09/a-high-grassland-bee-community-in.html
Abstract— Pinus halepensis Mill., is a most common tree in the Mediterranean basin. In Tunisia, specifically Kroumirie, it is an excellence species. However, for several years, we assist a continual deterioration of this ecosystem type. Several factors are the origin for this degradation: insects and fungi attack, fire, aging populations, low regeneration and hardening climate. This degradation is further accentuated by installing careers around the pine forest. Our objective in this study was to identify the career dust influence on growth and productivity of Aleppo pine; through dendrochronological approach (tree rings study) and dendrometric approach (measurement of diameter, height and survival rate). Study is accomplished on two populations: a reference site ‘Charchara’ located away from mining and Oued el maaden site near a gravel extraction career. In addition, physical and chemical parameters are analysed on soil and water samples collected in the two sites. Results showed significant differences of parameters studied between stations both in dendrometric and dendrochronological parameters over time. Second, in physical and chemical parameters, a very high content on metals traces was found on soil and water in Oued el maaden site.
Managing mangroves and sustainable aquacultureCIFOR-ICRAF
Presented by Virni Budi Arifanti of the Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry at the 3rd Asia-Pacific Rainforest Summit, on 23–25 April 2018 in Yogyakarta, Indonesia
2 ijfaf jan-2018-2-participatory mapping as a toolAI Publications
This study was carried out with the aim to contribute to the sustainable management of natural resources through the production of participative maps within forest communities in the Nguti subdivision. Specifically this was to illustrate the existing occupation and traditional tenure of forest lands and identify where conflicts of use or rights already exist or could arise both for national government planning and private investors. Data was collected through focus group discussions, household interview and field data collection with the local population through the use of GPS tablets. Results show that 90.7% of the population have no idea on this participative mapping process; however, 35.19% of the population are very interested in this mapping process as it could serve as a tool to enhance land security while 28% of respondents think it could serve as a tool for boundary clarification. Also 18% consider participative mapping an interesting tool to get good knowledge of an area and plan land use. However, forest is principally used here for farming, hunting and gathering with an average household farm size of 0.35ha per year with just 30% of the non-Timber forest products in this area being exploited. The study also revealed that, conflicts of use and right exist due to government affectations, unclear boundaries and the creation of chiefdoms. Participative mapping has proven to be the better tool for decision making as other tools such as satellite images have caused overlaps in state affectations.
The present study aims to investigate the biodiversity of woody vegetation along a gradient of human impacting region in the three constituent parts of Ferlo Biosphere Reserve (FBR): the core area, the buffer zone and the transition area. We conducted an inventory of 110 plots of 900 m² each. Total species richness was 49 species distributed in 32 genera within 16 botanical families. The analysis of contesimal frequency showed that Guiera senegalensis is the most common species with a presence of 75% of such records. Examination of species abundance spectrum showed that four most abundant species such as Guiera senegalensis (29.5%), Combretum glutinosum (15.9%), Pterocarpus lucens (11.6%) and Boscia senegalensis (10 , 5%). These four species represent 68% of the total individuals of the RBF and are also the four most common species. The spectrum of abundance of families showed that Combretaceae is the best represented family with almost half of the number of species (49.7%). The representativeness of biological types and geographical affinity of the species has been established for the woody vegetation in the study area. The study of diversity indices revealed that the buffer zone and the transition area are subjected to multiple uses and experiencing human action. It has a greater diversity and a level of organization with higher timber stand than the central area which is an integral conservation zone.
The rural-urban socioecological transformation of Mediterranean mountain areas under global change. Local studies in Olzinelles and Matadepera (Barcelona Metropolitan Region)
Long-term monitoring of diversity and structure of two stands of an Atlantic ...Écio Diniz
Characterised with its immense biodiversity and high levels of endemism, the Atlantic Tropical Forest has been facing serious anthropogenic threats over the last several decades, demanding for such activities and their effects to be closely studied and monitored as part of the forest dynamics.
Cattle farming, expanding agricultural land areas and mining have reduced the Atlantic Forest to many small patches of vegetation. As a result, important ecosystem services, such as carbon stock, are steadily diminishing as the biomass decreases.
Brazilian researchers, led by Dr. Écio Souza Diniz, Federal University of Viçosa, spent a decade monitoring a semi-deciduous forest located in an ecological park in Southeast Brazil. Their observations are published in the open access Biodiversity Data Journal.
The team surveyed two stands within the forest to present variations in the structure and diversity of the plants over time, along with their dynamics, including mortality and establishment rates. They based their findings on the most abundant tree species occurring within each stand.
At the forest stands, the most abundant and important species for biomass accumulation are concluded to be trees larger than 20 cm in diameter, which characterise advanced successional stage within the forest.
"It is fundamental that opportunities to monitor conserved sites of the Atlantic Forest are taken, so that studies about their dynamics are conducted in order to better understand how they work," note the scientists.
"The information from such surveys could improve the knowledge about the dynamics at anthropised and fragmented sites compared with protected areas."
Read more at: https://phys.org/news/2017-08-decade-dynamics-atlantic-tropical-forest.html#jCp
Aspects of life-history strategy of Marcusenius senegalensis (Pisces: Osteogl...AI Publications
Marcusenius senegalensis (Steindachner, 1870) is the dominant mormyrid in Niger River in Northern-Benin where this fish species constitutes an important component of artisanal fisheries. The current study documented the reproductive biology of M. senegalensis in order to contribute to management and sustainable exploitation. Monthly samplings were conducted between February 2015 and July 2016 using gillnets, cast net, and seine. Males dominated the population with a sex ratio of 1:0.96 in favor of males. Sizes at first sexual maturity were 167.89 mm-TL for males and 163.81 mm-TL for females. Monthly gonadosomatic index (GSI) averaged 0.12 ± 0.09 for males and 1.32 ± 1.56 for female and peaks recorded indicated that spawning occured from June to September. Fecundity were moderate to low (844 – 12,643 eggs) and significantly (p < 0.05) increased with total length and body weight. Thespecies showed egg diameters varying between 0.21 and to 1.77 mm and ovaries comprised oocytes at all stages of maturation indicating that M. senegalensis displayed a multi-spawning behavior. Marcuseniussenegalensis exhibited a demographic strategy between r and K, yet more inclined towards K-selected strategy. In Niger River, reproduction grounds were being severely degraded affecting recruitment and stocks. The current findings are valuable data to design a species management scheme that should includes spawning ground protection, species conservation and valorization and fisheries/aquaculture development.
Diversity and distribution of anuran in two islands of Parnaíba River Delta, ...Innspub Net
The distribution and composition of communities are influenced by factors that determine the environmental characteristics in a particular region. In order to obtain more information regarding the fauna of frogs in the region of the Parnaíba River Delta, Northeastern Brazil, we performed a quantitative ecological study to compare the composition and distribution of the amphibian communities. The study was conducted in the two largest islands of Deltafrom September 2008 to August 2009. Fifteen ponds were selected and slowly covered in search of males in calling activity. We recorded 21 frog species, distributed in five families and 11 genera. Ilha Grande de Santa Isabel(21 spp.) had higher species richness than the Ilha das Canárias (11 spp.). Although most species are considered to be common in open areas, they were highly influenced by the structural complexity of the vegetation. The highest richness was observed in environments with greatest availability of microhabitats for reproduction. The preservation of different environments found in the two islands, associated with the maintenance of suitable habitats for reproduction of each species, will contribute to the conservation of amphibian communities of the Parnaiba Delta River. Get the full articles at: http://www.innspub.net/jbes/diversity-and-distribution-of-anuran-in-two-islands-of-parnaiba-river-delta-northeastern-brazil/
Quantification of deadwood littered by Acacia spp. in semi-arid ecosystems of...Innspub Net
Deadwood (DW) is an important carbon component for conservation and management of biodiversity resources. They are ubiquitous in many semi-arid ecosystems although its estimation is still posing lots of challenges. At Chimwaga woodland in Dodoma Region of Central Tanzania, seasonal quantification of DW produced by two Acacia spp. was done to evaluate the influence of each tree species, Dbh and canopy area on DW biomass and to determine their ecological role in conservation of semi-arid ecosystem. Both purposive and random sampling techniques were used in the course of a completely randomized design (CRD). Thirty trees from each species of Acacia tortilis and Acacia nilotica were studied. Results portray that DW biomass was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the dry season than in the rain season whereby A. tortilis produced 669.0 ± 135.90kg DM/ha (dry season) and only 74.3 ± 135.90kg DM/ha (rain season) while A. nilotica produced 426.1 ± 135.90kg DM/ha (dry season) and 36.5 ± 135.90kg DM/ha (rain season). DW biomass did not correlate significantly (P > 0.05) with Dbh and canopy area. Inter-specific interactions were encountered from experimental areas where DW was littered that facilitated ecosystem balance in semi-arid areas. This information is important for estimating amount of dead wood biomass required to be retained in the forest provided that, at the expense of ecology, they are refuge for arthropods, fungi, bryophytes and other important soil microbes representing primary components of Biodiversity in semi-arid ecosystems.
Diversity and species composition of mangroves species in Pilar, Siargao Isla...Innspub Net
Mangroves are considered as the most significant components of the coastal ecosystem and among the most productive and biologically complex ecosystems on the planet. Assessment of mangrove species plays a critical role in the preservation and protection of the mangroves forest. The study aimed to assess the mangrove species in Pilar, Siargao Island. The belt transect was employed with a dimension of modified 10 m x 12 m and was installed per quadrat. Eight mangrove species were identified under four families, and these are B. sexanguela, C. decandra, R. apiculata, R. mucronata, A. alba, A. marina, L. littorea, and X. granatum. One species, C. decandra is categorized by the IUCN as a near-threatened state. Results from the mangroves vegetation structure show that R. apiculata got the highest relative frequency (26.32%), density (35.46%), and dominance (55.08%) therefore; it has the highest importance value (116.85%). This further implies that R. apiculata is the most important and acclimated mangrove species in the study area. The species diversity in Pilar, Siargao Island falls under very low diversity (H’=1.63) which might be attributed to some human-related disturbances. Thus, further consideration in future planning and conservation to increase the resiliency of the mangrove ecosystem is needed.
Adapting to climate change and variability: Tropical forests and wildfireCIFOR-ICRAF
Fire is part of the natural ecological processes in tropical forests, and is also widely used as a tool in managing forests. But as the climate of the world changes and becomes hotter and climate events like droughts become more extreme, many tropical forest areas could be impacted by an increase in fire activity.
In this presentation, CIFOR scientist Hety Herawati gives an overview of the interaction between climate change, wildfire and tropical forests, and gives a number of recommendations for helping both people and forests adapt to a future in which fire danger is increased. She gave this presentation at the IUFRO Conference on Forests for People held on 22-24 May 2012 in Alpbach, Austria, which was attended by approximately 200 participants from around 40 countries.
A High Grassland Bee Community in Southern Brazil: Survey and Annotated Check...Label-ha
Author(s): Denise Monique Dubet da Silva Mouga and Paulo Nogueira Neto
http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.2317/0022-8567-85.4.295
http://label-univille.blogspot.com.br/2013/09/a-high-grassland-bee-community-in.html
Abstract— Pinus halepensis Mill., is a most common tree in the Mediterranean basin. In Tunisia, specifically Kroumirie, it is an excellence species. However, for several years, we assist a continual deterioration of this ecosystem type. Several factors are the origin for this degradation: insects and fungi attack, fire, aging populations, low regeneration and hardening climate. This degradation is further accentuated by installing careers around the pine forest. Our objective in this study was to identify the career dust influence on growth and productivity of Aleppo pine; through dendrochronological approach (tree rings study) and dendrometric approach (measurement of diameter, height and survival rate). Study is accomplished on two populations: a reference site ‘Charchara’ located away from mining and Oued el maaden site near a gravel extraction career. In addition, physical and chemical parameters are analysed on soil and water samples collected in the two sites. Results showed significant differences of parameters studied between stations both in dendrometric and dendrochronological parameters over time. Second, in physical and chemical parameters, a very high content on metals traces was found on soil and water in Oued el maaden site.
Managing mangroves and sustainable aquacultureCIFOR-ICRAF
Presented by Virni Budi Arifanti of the Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry at the 3rd Asia-Pacific Rainforest Summit, on 23–25 April 2018 in Yogyakarta, Indonesia
2 ijfaf jan-2018-2-participatory mapping as a toolAI Publications
This study was carried out with the aim to contribute to the sustainable management of natural resources through the production of participative maps within forest communities in the Nguti subdivision. Specifically this was to illustrate the existing occupation and traditional tenure of forest lands and identify where conflicts of use or rights already exist or could arise both for national government planning and private investors. Data was collected through focus group discussions, household interview and field data collection with the local population through the use of GPS tablets. Results show that 90.7% of the population have no idea on this participative mapping process; however, 35.19% of the population are very interested in this mapping process as it could serve as a tool to enhance land security while 28% of respondents think it could serve as a tool for boundary clarification. Also 18% consider participative mapping an interesting tool to get good knowledge of an area and plan land use. However, forest is principally used here for farming, hunting and gathering with an average household farm size of 0.35ha per year with just 30% of the non-Timber forest products in this area being exploited. The study also revealed that, conflicts of use and right exist due to government affectations, unclear boundaries and the creation of chiefdoms. Participative mapping has proven to be the better tool for decision making as other tools such as satellite images have caused overlaps in state affectations.
The present study aims to investigate the biodiversity of woody vegetation along a gradient of human impacting region in the three constituent parts of Ferlo Biosphere Reserve (FBR): the core area, the buffer zone and the transition area. We conducted an inventory of 110 plots of 900 m² each. Total species richness was 49 species distributed in 32 genera within 16 botanical families. The analysis of contesimal frequency showed that Guiera senegalensis is the most common species with a presence of 75% of such records. Examination of species abundance spectrum showed that four most abundant species such as Guiera senegalensis (29.5%), Combretum glutinosum (15.9%), Pterocarpus lucens (11.6%) and Boscia senegalensis (10 , 5%). These four species represent 68% of the total individuals of the RBF and are also the four most common species. The spectrum of abundance of families showed that Combretaceae is the best represented family with almost half of the number of species (49.7%). The representativeness of biological types and geographical affinity of the species has been established for the woody vegetation in the study area. The study of diversity indices revealed that the buffer zone and the transition area are subjected to multiple uses and experiencing human action. It has a greater diversity and a level of organization with higher timber stand than the central area which is an integral conservation zone.
The rural-urban socioecological transformation of Mediterranean mountain areas under global change. Local studies in Olzinelles and Matadepera (Barcelona Metropolitan Region)
Long-term monitoring of diversity and structure of two stands of an Atlantic ...Écio Diniz
Characterised with its immense biodiversity and high levels of endemism, the Atlantic Tropical Forest has been facing serious anthropogenic threats over the last several decades, demanding for such activities and their effects to be closely studied and monitored as part of the forest dynamics.
Cattle farming, expanding agricultural land areas and mining have reduced the Atlantic Forest to many small patches of vegetation. As a result, important ecosystem services, such as carbon stock, are steadily diminishing as the biomass decreases.
Brazilian researchers, led by Dr. Écio Souza Diniz, Federal University of Viçosa, spent a decade monitoring a semi-deciduous forest located in an ecological park in Southeast Brazil. Their observations are published in the open access Biodiversity Data Journal.
The team surveyed two stands within the forest to present variations in the structure and diversity of the plants over time, along with their dynamics, including mortality and establishment rates. They based their findings on the most abundant tree species occurring within each stand.
At the forest stands, the most abundant and important species for biomass accumulation are concluded to be trees larger than 20 cm in diameter, which characterise advanced successional stage within the forest.
"It is fundamental that opportunities to monitor conserved sites of the Atlantic Forest are taken, so that studies about their dynamics are conducted in order to better understand how they work," note the scientists.
"The information from such surveys could improve the knowledge about the dynamics at anthropised and fragmented sites compared with protected areas."
Read more at: https://phys.org/news/2017-08-decade-dynamics-atlantic-tropical-forest.html#jCp
Aspects of life-history strategy of Marcusenius senegalensis (Pisces: Osteogl...AI Publications
Marcusenius senegalensis (Steindachner, 1870) is the dominant mormyrid in Niger River in Northern-Benin where this fish species constitutes an important component of artisanal fisheries. The current study documented the reproductive biology of M. senegalensis in order to contribute to management and sustainable exploitation. Monthly samplings were conducted between February 2015 and July 2016 using gillnets, cast net, and seine. Males dominated the population with a sex ratio of 1:0.96 in favor of males. Sizes at first sexual maturity were 167.89 mm-TL for males and 163.81 mm-TL for females. Monthly gonadosomatic index (GSI) averaged 0.12 ± 0.09 for males and 1.32 ± 1.56 for female and peaks recorded indicated that spawning occured from June to September. Fecundity were moderate to low (844 – 12,643 eggs) and significantly (p < 0.05) increased with total length and body weight. Thespecies showed egg diameters varying between 0.21 and to 1.77 mm and ovaries comprised oocytes at all stages of maturation indicating that M. senegalensis displayed a multi-spawning behavior. Marcuseniussenegalensis exhibited a demographic strategy between r and K, yet more inclined towards K-selected strategy. In Niger River, reproduction grounds were being severely degraded affecting recruitment and stocks. The current findings are valuable data to design a species management scheme that should includes spawning ground protection, species conservation and valorization and fisheries/aquaculture development.
Diversity and distribution of anuran in two islands of Parnaíba River Delta, ...Innspub Net
The distribution and composition of communities are influenced by factors that determine the environmental characteristics in a particular region. In order to obtain more information regarding the fauna of frogs in the region of the Parnaíba River Delta, Northeastern Brazil, we performed a quantitative ecological study to compare the composition and distribution of the amphibian communities. The study was conducted in the two largest islands of Deltafrom September 2008 to August 2009. Fifteen ponds were selected and slowly covered in search of males in calling activity. We recorded 21 frog species, distributed in five families and 11 genera. Ilha Grande de Santa Isabel(21 spp.) had higher species richness than the Ilha das Canárias (11 spp.). Although most species are considered to be common in open areas, they were highly influenced by the structural complexity of the vegetation. The highest richness was observed in environments with greatest availability of microhabitats for reproduction. The preservation of different environments found in the two islands, associated with the maintenance of suitable habitats for reproduction of each species, will contribute to the conservation of amphibian communities of the Parnaiba Delta River. Get the full articles at: http://www.innspub.net/jbes/diversity-and-distribution-of-anuran-in-two-islands-of-parnaiba-river-delta-northeastern-brazil/
The amphibian’s fauna of a West African forest relict near a hydroelectric Da...Innspub Net
This study reports the amphibian’s fauna sampled from the Biodiversity Conservation Area of the hydroelectric dam of Soubré city (southwestern Côte d’Ivoire). This study aims to provide a better understanding of the diversity of amphibians in this relict forest of 200 ha, in order to assess the ecological health of this ecosystem for conservation and sustainable management perspectives. During dry season (from 26 February to 4 March 2018) and rainy season (from 17 to 23 June 2018), we recorded 14 species of anurans grouped into eight genera and six families. The study sites comprise an amphibian fauna consisting mainly of savannah specialists and degraded forest (64.28% of total species richness). Based on the IUCN Red List, all species recorded are of least concern. Also, these species are well distributed in the different regions of Côte d’Ivoire and Africa. Thus, it is necessary to monitor the ecology of the species and to protect subsequently the different habitats of this area.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceinventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
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Spatial distribution and species abundance area of Non Timber Forest Products...AI Publications
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The Management of Protected Areas in Serengeti Ecosystem: A Case Study of Iko...inventy
The study assessed the management of protected areas in Serengeti ecosystem using the case of IGGRs. Specifically, the study aimed at identifying the strategies used for natural resources management; examining the impacts of those strategies; examining the hindrances of the identified strategies; and lastly, examining the methods for scaling up the performance of strategies used for natural resources in the study area. The study involved two villages among 31 villages bordering IGGRs where in each village; at least 5% of the households were sampled. Both Primary data and secondary data were collected and analyzed both manually and computer by using SPSS software. The study revealed that, study population ranked IGGRs performance on protection of natural resources, especially on conserving wildlife for future generation and in reducing poaching to be good(53.3%). In addition, the relationship with IGGRs was said to be considerable good (46.7%). In the aspect of reducing poaching, the findings show that poaching has been reduced by 96.2% from 2009 to 2012. Furthermore, 81.4% of respondents said they use different strategies to control loss of natural resources which in turn has considerably improved the relationship between protected areas and the surrounding communities in some of the aspects. Despite of above successes, the study findings has revealed a number of challenges that hinders the full attainment of conservation objectives. Among the challenges are loss of life and properties (86.4%), shortage of water for livestock (68.9%) since water sources such as Grumeti and Rubana rivers are within protected area while the adjacent local communities do not have a free access to those water sources. Other challenges especially on the IGGRs management include insufficient fund base, working facilities and inadequate staffs. Based on the above findings, the study concluded that the strategies used for natural resources management of protected areas in Serengeti ecosystem is fairly sustainable and need functional participatory approaches of local people and other stakeholders in order to bring about a collaborative natural resources management network in the ecosystem. Furthermore, based on the findings above, equity in benefit sharing accrued from natural resource management in protected areas, more financial support to IGGRs and local community, the use of non-lethal deterrents for crop protection, integration of croplivestock production systems, adoption of land use plans as a solution to land conflicts, strengthens of community based conservation (CBC), adoption of modern information technology such as geographical information system (GIS) and remote sensing are recommended.
Status of seagrass ecosystem in Kauswagan, Lanao Del Norte and Laguindingan, ...Innspub Net
The study was conducted to determine the present status of seagrass resources of Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental and Kauswagan, Lanao del Norte and compared this through time with secondary data. It employed the transect-quadrat methods. Perpendicular to the shoreline, three (3) 100-m transect lines at 200-m interval between each transect were laid. Seven seagrass species were recorded comprising 38.6% of the total number (19) of seagrass species found in the Philippines. The seagrass community in all sites surveyed showed that it is highly dominated by Thalassia hemprichii species. However, there were no significant differences in species richness and diversity based on single-factor ANOVA statistical analysis (p>0.5). The abundance of T. hemprichii could probably be due to the prominent characteristic of this species where it could grow well in different types of habitat with various environmental conditions. The condition of seagrass beds in both areas were fair and the low Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index of seagrass in Kauswagan, Lanao del Norte (H’=0.76±0.22) and in Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental respectively (H’=0.40±0.35) indicate low stability in the community, which means that the condition of the seagrass ecosystem could be under threat, both from natural and anthropogenic activities. Over time, a fluctuating trend in species composition and a notable decline in seagrass species diversity and abundance have been observed in both areas. This present status calls an immediate response from the decision makers concerned for the sustainable management and conservation of the seagrass resources.
Abstract
Grazing of livestock is the most widespread land-use practice in Northern part of Nigeria,
occupying about 60% of the land surface. These activities are usually carried out along
river channels and therefore, impact to a considerable extent on the riparian ecosystem.
This study assesses the effects of livestock grazing on riparian ecosystem along Gongola
River at Dadin Kowa, Yamaltu Deba LGA, Gombe State, Nigeria. Water samples and
laboratory test, field measurements and observation of vegetation species were employed
in the study. Descriptive and inferential statistics i.e. T-test was used to analyze the data.
The findings revealed that, shrubs are the dominant plant species with 23.17%, followed
by neem (Azadiractha indica) 18.30%, Herbs dominating 17.07%, and Mango (magnifera
indica) 13.41%. A t-test analysis reveals that there is significant difference in the height
and diameter of trees with t-value of 9.087. Plant species that are palatable to animals
have witnessed degradation through looping and trampling hence their survivals are at
risks. While the largest livestock composition are mainly cows constituting about
52.72%, followed by sheep 40%. Apart from polluting the water, the livestock routes and
riparian corridors are characterized by erosion thereby increasing to the
siltation/sedimentation of the Gongola River valley. Also, result of water quality analysis
revealed an uneven distribution in all the selected parameters. Mean pH value obtained
was 8.22, while calcium, magnesium, chloride, turbidity, Biochemical Oxygen Demand
were 10.88 mg/L, 0.23 mg/L, 21.26 mg/L, 564.00NTU and 11.29mg/L, respectively. This
implies that the water quality is not safe for human consumption and to a larger extent the
livestock. The study, therefore, recommends the need for creation of ranches in the area
by the Federal or State Government to preserve the natural environment from biodiversity
lost.
Mangroves are vital for healthy coastal ecosystems in many regions of the world and research and studies are revealing the unique importance of these habitats to the planet. The Mangrove Action Project is dedicated to reversing the degradation and loss of mangrove forest wetlands and their associated coastal ecosystems worldwide. www.mangroveactionproject.org
Levers for the transformation of land use on the periphery of the Haut-Sassan...Innspub Net
The development of the agricultural sector in Côte d’Ivoire has led to profound changes in forest cover in general and around the protected areas of the State in particular. The aim of this work is to give an account of the process of mutation of the rural space of the classified forest of Haut-Sassandra for a better conservation of the latter. To achieve this objective, satellite images dating from 1997, 2002, 2006, 2013 and 2018 have been classified followed by observations and field surveys. The results show a reduction in forest cover in favour of agriculture. In fact, the forested areas that occupied 18.4% of the landscape in 1997 fell to 4% in 2018 with a conversion of more than 80% of the forested areas to crops. The latter are dominated by three perennial crops with associated food crops. Among these perennial crops, cocoa and coffee are the old ones and are essentially cultivated on a forest cultivation precedent, thus leading to a rarefaction of forest areas. While cashew trees, the third perennial crop, are more recent and were introduced into the area as a result of the increasing scarcity of forest areas. Thus, cashew trees are essentially cultivated on previous crops grown on fallow land and old plantations.
this is my 10th standard project wherein i have compiled information from various sources. it is a short project with useful content. hope it proves to be of good use.
Pritam Bhattacharjee, Dr. Pralay Ganguly
Sundarban is world famous for its mangrove vegetation and is approximately of 10,000 sq km in area in the northern Bay of Bengal, which is also designated as world heritage site by UNESCO in the year 1987. It is the home of several animals and plant species, specially the mangrove trees (Sundari) and Royal Bengal tiger of this forest is world famous. Mangroves functions as a buffer against frequently occurring cyclones and helps to protect South Bengal specially Kolkata and southern part of Bangladesh. But now a day due to the climate change and repetitive cyclone occurring every year, Sundarban faces lots of challenges, with rising sea level- island are disappearing, salinity of water increasing day by day in addition of that there have been a major disturbances to hydrological parameters, changing fishing patterns are resulting disastrous consequences for the fisher man. Frequent cyclones and erratic monsoon damaging ecology, humidity, livelihood as well as ecotourism. The objective of this research is to focus the area of Sundarban and its potentials, challenges and probable solution to overcome the situation as well as the impact of mangrove degradation on local people and tourism. Here we use some data and statistics to understand the situation better. In this process researcher collected data from 130 respondents in the study area and further analysis has been taken through percentage method, statistical tools like t test with the help of software like SPSS, MS excel etc to conclude. Study findings suggest that significance difference exists on profile base of residents due to environmental degradation and minimize the negative impacts on same could bring a prosperous livelihood for residents
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Analysis of the rate of change of mangrove forest ecosystem in calabar south, nigeria
1. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.7, 2013
78
Analysis of the Rate of Change of Mangrove Forest Ecosystem in
Calabar South, Nigeria
Dr. Okpiliya F.I, Effiong E.B. and Udida A.A (Ph.D).
E-mail: fetiongokpiliya@yahoo.com
Department of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Calabar, Calabar.
Abstract
The study aimed at determining the magnitude of change of the mangrove forest ecosystem in the
coastal communities of Calabar. Also, this study examined the volume of mangrove trees exploited by the
inhabitants of the study area. Five communities highly noted for the exploitation of mangrove in the area were
used for the study – Anantigha, Efut Obufa Esuk, Cobhan-Duke Town, Henshaw town and Mbukpa Akani Esuk
orok. Volume of wood exploited and which was determined by the researchers using the single tree stumpage
volume with the formula,
Where π= 3.143 G = Girth at breast height (M
) and Ht = Tree height (M). However, Tariff rate/pole and
merchantable tree (logs), height, were gathered from the Monthly tree Analysis Report of Forestry Department in
Calabar. In order to establish trend of mangrove forest change over years, a multi-temporal image data of the
mangrove vegetation covering the area (1970 – 2011) was acquired and processed. These Include: a Toposheet
(1970) derived from an aerial photo of 1970, Landsat imagery 1970, 1986, 2011 at 30m resolution. These data
sets were geo- referenced into a common framework in a G.I.S environment (Arc. GIS 9.3) after which they
were digitized and delineated into mangrove class, and other Non – Mangrove classes (Fresh Water Swamp,
Nypa palm, Farm land and so on.) The Landsat imagery was also treated likewise. Intersection operations of the
above data sets were carried out to determine the change in mangrove area coverage between the different time
periods in consideration (1970, 1991 and 2011).
Indices of mangrove forest change which includes: Intensity Index, or potential trend which is given by;
Tі = Ubi – Uai, (1, 2…8) was computed, dynamic index whose formula is Ki = Ubi – Uai x 1
/T x100%, (1, 2….8)
was equally determined and finally the Contribution rate of change given as Ai = Ubi – Uai ∑(Ubi – Uai) was
analyzed.
The result of analysis revealed among other things.
i. The rate of areal change of mangrove ecosystem has been in the neighbourhood of -2.75km2
between
1970 and 1990 and -32.12km2
between 1991 and 2011.
ii. The areal cover of Nypa palm has been on increase from 3.04km2
between 1970 and 1990 to 31.86
between 1991-2011.
iii. With mean value of total annual number of mangrove trees exploited was put at 6225. It was discovered
that eleven years (2001-2011) recorded over exploitation.
Introduction
Mangrove forests are estuarine ecosystems in the inter-tidal and tropical sub tidal shallow zones of the world.
They cover about 18 million hectares (Ukpong 2007) or 0.6 percent of all inland forests across the globe (Sanger
et al 1986). Originally, mangrove dominated over two-thirds of the earth’s tropical and subtropical coasts. But
today, less than half of this portion is left due to human interferences. From an estimated remnant of 22 million
hectares of mangrove worldwide, 17 per cent is currently located in Africa (Aksornkoae, 1998). Ukpong (2007)
indicated that Nigeria has the largest mangrove forest in Africa being the third largest mangrove in the World
covering a total of 999,400 hectares along the West Atlantic coast of Africa.
Once dismissed as swampy Wastelands, mangrove forests perform multiple ecological functions as the
production of woody trees, provision of food and spawning grounds for fish and shellfish; provision of habitats
for birds and other valuable fauna. They also protect coastlines and aid in the accretion of sediments to form new
land (Hamilton et al, 1984). Some of these functions have benefits far beyond the geographical limit of the
mangrove zone itself.
Quite disheartening from observation is the tendency among humans to explore, exploit and manipulate
mangrove forests beyond their ecological tolerance. Pressures resulting from population growth, improved
technology in resource exploitation and utilization, economic development and urban expansion have seemed to
be seriously impacting on the mangrove ecosystems. The preponderance of human activities such as, poorly
executed logging operation, land reclamation and conversion into slumps farms; fishponds and privatization of
these marginal lands for development purpose constitute threat to the forest of the study area.
2. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.7, 2013
79
For some time now, emphasis on both global and regional scales in the study of all aspects of forestry has been
on upland forest with little or no focus on mangrove as a unique ecosystem in its own right. This situation
revealed itself in Calabar South of Cross River State dated back to the colonial days where several areas of its
eco-zones in the tropical High forest were designated as forest reserved for conservation and protection of their
biological richness, but in the case of mangrove ecosystems of the coastal communities of Cross River State it
was left out. Being in this status, the mangrove forest of Calabar south was regarded as a “forgotten habitat”
except for all sorts of socio economic activities and interferences by the inhabitant of the area who used it as a
source of livelihood. Between 1980 and 2006 a quarter of the mangrove in West Africa was said to have
disappeared and it is expected that loss rate will rise to as much as 70 per cent, if no measures are taken. The
degradation of this ecosystem has a considerable impact on biological diversity and the socio-economic activities
depending on it. Such impacts include: the disappearance of species of fauna and flora, poverty, employment and
disputes. In view of the high tendency now regarding mangrove deforestation, the area of Nigerian mangroves
(calabar south inclusive) has dropped from 9,990km2
to 7,386km2
between 1980 and 2006 (World Rainforest
movement 2009). Nypa palm (Nypa frutican) introduced in Calabar (Eastern Niger Delta) in 1906 is taking
replacement now by expanding and spreading into the degraded mangrove areas over the past few decades. A
significant aspect of the distribution and spread of the palm is the near complete absence of mangrove vegetation
in the places that the palm has effectively colonized. Going by the rate of spread of the palm, the displacement
of native Rhizophora mangrove vegetation by the alien palm is gradually leading to habitat alteration and loss in
mangrove productivity (World Rainfoest Movement, 2009). Perhaps, the massive destruction of mangrove
associated with military use of herbicides in Vietnam decades ago, spurred a new zeal among Asian scientists to
research into the possible implications of this unwholesome practice of man on mangroves. Although Ekeke
(2003) had beamed his searchlight on measures of poverty reduction among communities in the mangrove
regions of Nigeria, the approach adopted like that of others veered away from providing deeper insight into the
trend of destructions and their related consequences on the environment and man.
In other words, it implies that a reasonable work has been done but not enough especially in the
associated area of change rate of the mangrove ecosystem of Calabar south, Cross River State of Nigeria. Hence,
the gaps this study tends to fill
Objectives of the study
The objectives of this study include:
i. To determine the rate of mangrove forest change in the area over time.
ii. To determine the number and volume of mangrove trees exploited by the inhabitants of Calabar South.
iii. To map out the change in mangrove forest ecosystem over the years.
iv. To examine annual variation in the exploitation of mangrove trees.
Study Area
Calabar South Local Government is the study area. It is located along the Nigeria-Cameroon coast
between Latitude 40
55’N and longitude 80
16’E being part of the Calabar mangrove Estuary under West
African mangrove sub formation (Ukpong 1995). Locally, it is bounded to the north, east and west by Calabar
Municipality and Odukpani Local Government Areas respectively. It is bounded to the south east by Akpabuyo
L.G.A.
The area is flanked on its eastern and western borders by two rivers, the Great Kwa and Calabar River
respectively and to the south, by the Atlantic Ocean.
The climate of the area is humid tropical although rainfall occurs throughout the year. The place
experiences double maxima, rainfall regime in July and September (1880 mm), the lowest rainfall values of 240
mm occur from December to February (Met; serv. 1980). The temperature is uniformly high with a maximum of
300
C and minimum of 230
C. The area has a high relative humidity usually between 80% and 100% and vapour
pressure in the air averaged 29 millibars throughout the year. High salinity (3.8 ± 0.4%) is limited to the dry
season while lower salinity (0.5 ± 0.6%) occurs in the rainy season (Ukpong1995). Tidal amplitude in the
estuary ranges from 2.01m at spring tides to 1.07m at neap tides (Nigerian Navy 1986).
The present settlement starts from the mouth of the estuarine coastline and projects to the hinterland
and it’s growth to the south is limited by the mangrove swamps. Fallow land is available only eastwards up to
the Great Kwa River and northward. The area is an interflurial settlement, typical in this part of the country built
on high area between two adjacent rivers. This locational advantage permits easy access especially through
waterways for intending migrants who are mostly fishermen and traders in wood and craft items to the area.
However, the swamp as a whole varies by less than 1 in 500 metres in elevation except on the upland forest
ecotone where abandoned levees may exceed 1in 500metres(Ukpong 1995).
The settlement pattern following the order above takes the linear shape except within and extending 20km of the
mangrove forest area to the Atlantic ocean, some clustered fishing settlement pattern are identified otherwise
3. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.7, 2013
80
known as Ine (Fishing port). The presence of these fishing settlements in the area provided and facilitated easy
access into the mangrove forest for rapid exploitation of its resources leading to increased depletion of the
ecosystem.
Geologically, the area is composed of tertiary sandy deposits of fluvio-marine origin. These are overlain
by quaternary silty and clayey alluvium eroded from massive pre-Cambrian rocks of Oban hills in the outskirts.
This characteristics poorly consolidated, non cohesive and porous rock formation permits large accumulation of
water through constant and occasional flooding of the ecological zone. Floodwater recession or tidal retreat
permits deposition of alluvial fans and levees quite supportive of plant growth. It accounts for occupational
engagement in market gardening among dwellers. The soils are sandy; light hued in some location, but clayey,
muddy, dark grey in colour, water logged and boggy.
However, saline mangrove soils, developed on mud, sand or peat at the mouths of estuaries inundated by
tropical tide water’s (Ukpong1995).But more acid soils is identified to be associated in the zonation of Nypa
fructican, Rhizophora species dominance (Ukpong 1995).
The predominant vegetation type is mangrove. The mangrove flora consists of trees and shrubs of few
general varying species. The common genus is Rhizophora with three: R racemosa, R harisonii and R. mangle.
The dominant feature of mangrove is the stilt roots of Rhizophora species. Associated with these species are
Avicennia africana and Lagunculeria racemosa. There are also palms, Prodococcus bateri, Ancistrophyllum
opacum and the gregarious and aggressive Nypa frutican. Salt marshes and sea grasses interact with the
mangrove forest to support the entire coastal zone. Hence, because of its status of composition and structure it is
known to be part of the most complex vegetation which is the northernmost limits of the Mangrove growth in the
Cross River estuary (Ukpong 1995)
This complex plant community of wetland origin formed an ecological niche for reptiles, monkeys,
birds, fishes, shrimps, mollusks, and other wildlife. Thus, it is often harvested for wood, fuelwood, tannin, leaves,
fibers and dyes. Mangrove environment in particular is important for inland fisheries, serving as highly
productive habitat for shell and finfish. These inform the migration of fishermen from Delta, Akwa Ibom and
Akpabuyo to settle and take advantage of the rich supply at this point (Nest 1991).
Its estimated population in 2007 stands at 191,515 (NPC 2006); In-migration has formed the major
source of its population growth. The immigrant communities include Ibibio, Oron, Ibo, Ijaw, Anang, Urhobo,
and other tribes within and outside Nigeria. Despite the ethnic intermix, a fraction of indigenous population
mostly of the Efiks/Efut extraction are found in the locality. This wave of migration brought along changing
perception of interaction with the environment. This scenario contributed immensely in the remaking of the
greater part of the mangrove ecosystem.
The rural people engaged in artisan fishing and the cultivation of vegetables, cassava and maize at
commercial and subsistence level. Fishing is done using small nets to catch even fingerlings. Shrimp farming is
also in vogue. It involves clearing/cutting down the available mangrove forest or aquatic fauna for making ponds.
Logging and lumbering of fuel wood for charcoal Production sales and also for timber are common practices.
The fish species are Ibat/Ekpai (Ethmalosa fimbrata). The bonga and flat Cameroon Sardine (S. Cammeronesis).
Commercial shrimps and prawns found here are: Pink shrimp (Penacus duorarum), salt water prawns
(Newmatopalaema spp) among others.
Economic wood species harvested are; mangrove, Achi gum (Oxystigma spp), Owen (Mitragyna spp),
Camwood (Pterocarpus spp), Mkpenek (Uapaca spp) and so on (Fayemi et al 2005).
Method Of Study
Data collected essentially on the quantity (volume) of Mangrove wood exploited and the areal extent
of Mangrove depleted as well as the number of mangrove trees exploited annually. The principal source of data
was from field work conducted by the researchers (primary source.)
Secondary sources of data to compliment primary source were from multi temporal image data (Landsat Imagery,
Orthophoto maps and Topographic Maps.) Others were; tree girth, height, tariff rates and numbers of trees
(merchantable and pole) from monthly tree analysis of forestry department.
Reconnaissance survey of the study area to observe the socio- economic activities and the states of the mangrove
forest was carried out. Outstanding age long stakeholders of mangrove forest at different locations were
contacted to assist provide information. Volume of wood were computed and determined by the researchers
using the single tree stumpage volume formula,
Where π= 3.143 G = Girth at breast height (M
) and Ht = Tree height (M). However, Tariff rate/pole and
merchantable tree (logs), height, were gathered from the Monthly tree Analysis Report of Forestry Department in
Calabar. In order to establish trend of mangrove forest depletion (loss) over years, a multi-temporal image data
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of the mangrove vegetation covering the area (1970 – 2008) was acquired and processed. These Include: a
Toposheet (1970) derived from an aerial photo of 1968, Landsat imagery 1970, 1986, and 2008 at 30m
resolution.
These data sets were geo- referenced into a common framework in a G.I.S environment (Arc. GIS 9.3)
after which they were digitized and delineated into mangrove class, and other Non – Mangrove classes (Fresh
Water Swamp, Nypa palm, Farm land and so on.) The Landsat imagery was also treated likewise. Intersection
operations of the above data sets were carried out to determine the change in mangrove area coverage between
the different time periods in consideration (1970, 1986 and 2008). An area time series of mangrove forest
depleted over the years was analyzed and prediction were made into the future.
Ground truthing exercise was also carried out using G. P. S. for confirmation of vegetation status based on point
of coordinates.
Indices of mangrove forest change which includes: Intensity Index, Dynamics Index of land use type and
Contribution rate of change were determined accordingly using the formulae: Change Intensity Index: This is
defined as a percentage that an area of land-use change is divided by the total land area in the study period. It is
used to compare the strength of land use change or potential trend. It is given as;
Tі = Ubi – Uai, (1, 2…8)……………(1)
Dynamic index of land use type: Land-use type of Dynamic Index is the rate of change for a certain type of
land-use in the study area within a certain time which is given as;
Ki = Ubi – Uai x 1
/T x100%, (1, 2….8) ……..(2)
Contribution rate of change: the contribution rate of changes is the percentage that the certain type
land–use changes contributes to the total land-use change in the same period. It is given as;
Ai = Ubi – Uai ……………………………………….. (3)
∑(Ubi – Uai)
Where; Ti = the intensity of į’th land use type changes in study period. Uai = denotes the i’th land –use type
area at the beginning
Ubi denotes the i’th land – use type area at the ending. B= denotes the total area of the study area at the ending.
Ki Denotes dynamic index for a certain land – use types within study period. Ai denotes the contribution rate of
changes of the i’th land land-use type within study period; T denotes the study period
∑=Summation. (Wang 2010). The mean value (x-
) was used as a benchmark or theoretical framework to
determine under exploitation or over exploitation of mangrove trees. Any value of mangrove trees exploited
annually above the mean represent over exploitation and the value below the mean is taken for under
exploitation.
Data Presentation and Discussion of Findings
The Rate of Mangrove Forest Change Over the Years
From table 1, the result reveals that the rate of mangrove change during the period (1970-1990) was 0.145km2
which represent 2.66% of the area change while in 1991-2011 there was a tremendous increase in the rate of
change indicating that each year within this period 1.69 km2
of mangrove was being depleted representing 31.12%
of the entire areal change. In this case the competitive rivalry in land cover replacement was Nypa palm. Hence,
any minus (negative indication) in mangrove cover is likely to be a plus (positive indication) to Nypa palm first
as colonizers. Therefore judging from the result in the two time period of study 1970-2011, 1991-2011, the
differences in the percentage of area change of 2.66% and 31.12% respectively as also expressed in the map (Fig
2, 3 and 4.) denotes a clearer result that the changes in the mangrove forest coverage of calabar south is very
significant. In comparison with other land cover type changes also, it concludes that there is a significant
difference in the rate of mangrove forest depletion over the years .This is confirmed by the indices study of
mangrove forest change (change intensity index, Dynamic change index and contribution rate of change (Table
2).
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Table 1: Change Rate of Mangrove Forest and Other Land Cover (1970-1991-2011)
Cover types Cover
status
1970
(Km2
)
Cover
status
1991
Area
change
1970-
1991
(Km2
)
Rate of
change
per year
(Km2
)
Area
change
(%)
Cover
status
2011
(Km2
)
Area
change
1991-
2011
Km2
Rate of
change
per year
(1970-
2011)
Area
Change
(%)
Mangroves 72.69 69.94 -2.75 0.145 2.66 37.82 -32.12 1.691 34.87
Nypa
Palm
18.27 21.31 3.04 0.16 2.95 53.57 32.26 1.70 35.3
Farm Land 0.7 1.00 0.3 0.02 0.29 3.22 2.22 0.12 2.15
Raphia palm 1.0 1.01 0.01 0.001 0.01 1.04 0.03 0.002 0.03
Built up 5..59 6.10 0.51 0.027 0.49 8.77 2.67 0.14 2.59
Table 2: The indices of mangrove forest change rate in the study area
Index 1970-1990 1991-2011 1970-2011
Area change (Km2
) -2.75 -32.12 34.87
Change intensity index (%) 2.66 35.97 38.63
Dynamic change index (%) -0.20 -2.79 2.99
Contribution Rate of Change(%) 35.62 49.92 85.5
From the analysis, the percentage change in mangrove forest ecosystem compared to the total land area in the
study site within the study period of 21 years which is denoted by the change intensity index is 38.63 percent.
Also, within this period of study irrespective of other land use types, mangrove forest ecosystem alone changed
as indicated by the dynamic index of change 2.99. The changes in mangrove forest ecosystem in relation to the
changes in other land use types within the study period was 85.5 percent. Thus, it could summed up that the
changes in mangrove forest ecosystem has been remarkable over the years.
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FIG 1: MANGROVE VEGETATION STATUS AND OTHER LAND COVER TYPES IN 1991
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FIG 1: MANGROVE VEGETATION STATUS AND OTHER LAND COVER TYPES IN 1991
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FIG 1: MANGROVE VEGETATION STATUS AND OTHER LAND COVER TYPES IN 1991
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FIG 2: MANGROVE FOREST VEGETATION AND OTHER LAND COVER TYPES IN 1991
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FIG 2: MANGROVE FOREST VEGETATION AND OTHER LAND COVER TYPES IN 1991
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FIG 2: MANGROVE FOREST VEGETATION AND OTHER LAND COVER TYPES IN 1991
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FIG 3: MANGROVE FOREST VEGETATION STATUS AND OTHER LAND COVER TYPES
IN 2011
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FIG 3: MANGROVE FOREST VEGETATION STATUS AND OTHER LAND COVER TYPES
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FIG 3: MANGROVE FOREST VEGETATION STATUS AND OTHER LAND COVER TYPES
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Growth of Nypa Over Mangrove During the Period of Study
Table 3: Mangrove and Nypa Growth in the study area.
LAND
COVER
TYPES
1970
(Km2
)
1991
(Km2
)
2011
(Km2
)
Mangrove 72.69 69.94 37.82
Nypa Palm 18.27 21.31 53.57
Source: Authors Field Report 2011.
Fig 5: A graph showing Mangrove and Nypa Growth in the study area.
As table 3 and figure 5 shows, in 1970, mangrove occupied an area of 72.69km2
as against Nypa with 18.27km2
.
In 1991, mangrove had a total area of 69.94km2
and Nypa 21.31km2
. But in 2011, the areal expanse of Nypa
overshot that of mangrove with Nypa having a total area of 67.22km2
and mangrove 42.83km2
. On the whole,
this analysis indicated that Nypa has been growing profusely in the study area to occupy the place originally
covered by mangrove. That is why the trend line in figure 5 which indicated the growth of mangrove and Nypa
shows that of Nypa always going up and that of mangrove tending downwards.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1970 1991 2011
Mangrove
Nypa Palm
Years
Area (km2
)
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Annual Volume and Number of Mangrove Trees Extracted
Table 4: Summary of volume & number of trees extracted over the years
S/no Years
Total no of trees
extracted
Differences
between years
%
difference
Annual volume
extracted (M3)
1 1991 3792 11,747.74
2 1992 4708 916 19.46 8,448.54
3 1993 4733 25 0.53 6888.99
4 1994 4760 27 0.57 7,237.28
5 1995 485 -91 1.88 7911.97
6 1996 4892 41 0.84 6599.28
7 1997 4995 103 2.06 9375.18
8 1998 5188 193 3.72 8085
9 1999 5210 22 42.23 4474.94
10 2000 5944 734 12.35 9236.47
11 2001 6292 348 5.53 7227.84
12 2002 7286 994 13.64 6407.63
13 2003 7438 152 2.04 6662.34
14 2004 7480 42 0.56 6079.78
15 2005 7491 11 0.15 6453.66
16 2006 7538 47 0.62 5959.35
17 2007 7561 23 0.3 5396.65
18 2008 7608 47 0.62 5114.87
19 2009 7637 29 0.38 3923.56
20 2010 7820 183 2.34 2910.49
21 2011 7500 -320 4.27 2820.76
TOTAL 130,724 1,38,962.32
Source: Department of Forestry, Calabar South L.G.A
Table 4 indicates the number and volume of trees extracted for 21 years. The volume of mangrove trees
exploited was established at 1,38,962.32m3
while the total number of trees harvested was 130,724. It is suffice to
note that the total number of trees cut annually has been progressive over the years from 1991-2011 (3,792-
7500).
The highest percentage difference in the number of trees extracted within the grouping period of years
(1991-2011) were recorded as follows: 1999 was 42.23 per cent, 1992 had 19.46 per cent and 2000 being 12.35
per cent. A drop in the number of trees cut was observed from (2003-20009). The least of 0.3 per cent in 2007
and 4.27 per cent in 2009 was observed. The indication here is that the forest is highly depleted in recent times.
However, it should be noted that based on the computation of the single tree volume, the number of trees cut
annually over a given area does not determine the volume derived, rather the higher the Girth size and height of
tree in an area, the higher the volume per tree and vice versa. For instance in 1991, annual wood volume was
11,747.74M3
from 3,792 trees exploited while 2011 – volume was 2820.76M3
from 7500 trees exploited. The
implication here is that the matured trees were no longer reached for harvest. Hence, under -girth trees were
exploited due to long distances to ready matured tree destinations which is now located around Abana in
Bakassi and boundary of Nigeria and Cameroon republic as observed in the field
Annual Variation in Mangrove Exploitation
From figure 5 and table 5 below, it could be seen that exploitation of mangrove has been very rapid in
the area. The mean value for the number of mangrove trees exploited for the period of 21 years was 6225. Based
on this value, 10 years (1991-2000) recorded exploitation of mangrove below the mean value. The reason for this
low exploitation of mangrove trees from 1991-2011 was that at this time, there was still importation of timber
generally in the country to complement the existing wood for construction purposes. However, from the year
2000when there was ban on importation of timber, there was therefore immense pressure on mangrove
exploitation to provide wood needed for construction and other purposes. Also, observations in the field revealed
that during this period, the price per litre of kerosene used for domestic heating increased so that quest for
mangrove as an alternative source of energy equally increased. This led to the pressure on mangrove in the study
area. The trend in mangrove exploitation increased tremendously till the close of 2010 when the Cross River
State Government banned logging generally in the state that the state started witnessing a reversal in mangrove
ecosystem destabilization.
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Table 5:
Years No of Trees No of Trees-Mean No of Trees –Mean (Squared)
X X X-X-
(x-x-
)2
1991 3792 -4233 5919489
1992 4708 -1517 2301289
1993 4733 -492 2226064
1994 4760 -1465 2146225
1995 4850 -1375 1890625
1996 4892 -1333 1776889
1997 4995 -1230 1512900
1998 5188 -1037 1075369
1999 5210 -1015 1030225
2000 5944 -281 778961
2001 6292 67 4489
2002 7286 1061 1125721
2003 7438 1213 1471369
2004 7480 1255 1575025
2005 7491 1266 1602756
2006 7538 1313 1723969
2007 7561 1336 1784896
2008 7608 1383 1912689
2009 7637 1412 1993744
2010 7820 1595 2544025
2011 7500 1275 1625625
∑ = 130723 Х-
6225 ∑ = 35771344
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Figure 5: Annual Variation in Mangrove Exploitation showing the Mean Value as a Theoretical
Determining Level of Exploitation.
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
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Figure 5: Annual Variation in Mangrove Exploitation showing the Mean Value as a Theoretical
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
www.iiste.org
Figure 5: Annual Variation in Mangrove Exploitation showing the Mean Value as a Theoretical Benchmark for
Mean value = 6225
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Conclusions
It is suffice to note that mangrove forest ecosystem change in Calabar is increasing rapidly over the years. This
process is bound to continue in as much as there is no forest management plan in the area. It was discovered that
there is relative absence of enforced government regulatory and monitoring mechanisms which should be in
collaboration with Local Communities to carry out effective mangrove reformation and biodiversity
conservation programmes in the study area. This scenario has ultimately left the mangrove ecosystem in the
hands of destroyers with the attendant consequences of flooding and loss of biodiversity among others. It
becomes imperative therefore to suggest here that the protection of the mangrove ecosystem should be accorded
priority by the government because of its role as habitat for both flora and fauna.
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