An Introduction to Video Principles-Part 1

Dr. Mohieddin Moradi
mohieddinmoradi@gmail.com
Dream
Idea
Plan
Implementation
1

2
https://www.slideshare.net/mohieddin.moradi/presentations

− Elements of High-Quality Image Production
− Human Visual System and Color Perception
− A Short History of Film
− Mechanism of CCD and CMOS Sensors
− Television System History
− Color Video Signal Formats
− The Color Bars Test Signal Specifications
− CIE Color Spaces and Color Gamut Specifications
− Analog to Digital Conversion and Color Sub-Sampling
Outline
3

Not only more pixels, but better pixels
Elements of High-Quality Image Production
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑸𝒐𝑬 𝒐𝒓 𝑸𝒐𝑿 = 𝒇(𝑸𝟏, 𝑸𝟐, 𝑸𝟑,….)
5
Q1 Spatial Resolution (HD, UHD)
Q2 Temporal Resolution (Frame Rate) (HFR)
Q3 Dynamic Range (SDR, HDR)
Q4 Color Gamut (BT. 709, BT. 2020)
Q5 Coding (Quantization, Bit Depth)
Q6 Compression Artifacts
.
.
.

Spatial Resolution (Pixels)
HD, FHD, UHD1, UHD2
Temporal Resolution (Frame rate)
24fps, 30fps, 60fps, 120fps …
Dynamic Range (Contrast)
From 100 nits to HDR
Color Space (Gamut)
From BT.709 to BT.2020
Quantization (Bit Depth)
8 bits, 10 bits, 12 bits …
Major Elements of High-Quality Image Production
6

UHDTV 1
3840 x 2160
8.3 MPs
Digital Cinema 2K
2048 x 1080 2.21 MPs
4K
4096 x 2160 8.84 MPs
SD (PAL)
720 x 576
0.414MPs
HDTV 720P
1280 x 720
0.922 MPs
HDTV 1920 x 1080
2.027 MPs
UHDTV 2
7680 x 4320
33.18 MPs
8K
8192×4320
35.39 MPs
Wider viewing angle
More immersive
7
Digital Cinema Initiatives
Q1: Spatial Resolution

23.98 fps
29.97 fps
59.94 fps
119.88 fps
24/25 fps
30 fps
50/60 fps
100/120 fps
8
Q2: High Frame Rate (HFR)

Motion Blur
Motion Judder
Conventional Frame Rate High Frame Rate
Wider viewing angle
Increased perceived
motion artifacts
Higher frame rates needed
50fps minimum (100fps being vetted)
Q2: High Frame Rate (HFR)
9

Subjective Evaluations of HFR
Report BT.2246-16
Pitcher
1 2 3 4 5
Batting
Bat-pitch
Steal
Tennis
Runner
Coaster
Pan
Shuttle
Skating
Swings
Soccer
1 2 3 4 5
240
120
60
Resolution 1920×1080, 100” Display, Viewing Distance 3.7 m, Viewing Condition ITU-R BT.500, ITU-R BT.710, 69 Pressons 10

Gamut
− The Gamut of a color space is the complete range of
colors allowed for a specific color space.
− It is the range of colors allowed for a video signal.
− No video, film or printing technology is able to fill all the
colors can be see by human eye.
− Outside edge defines fully saturated colours.
− Purple is “impossible”.
− Each corner of the gamut defines the primary colours.
11
Q3: Wide Color Gamut
Chromaticity coordinates of Rec. 2020 RGB primaries and
the corresponding wavelengths of monochromatic light
Parameter Values
Opto-electronic transfer
characteristics before
non-linear pre-correction
Assumed linear
Primary colours and
reference white
Chromaticity coordinates
(CIE, 1931)
x y
Red primary (R) 0.708 0.292
Green primary (G) 0.170 0.797
Blue primary (B) 0.131 0.046
Reference white (D65) 0.3127 0.3290

– Deeper Colors
– More Realistic Pictures
– More Colorful
WCG
Wide Color Space (ITU-R Rec. BT.2020)
75.8%, of CIE 1931
Color Space (ITU-R Rec. BT.709)
35.9%, of CIE 1931
CIE 1931 Color Space
Q3: Wide Color Gamut
12

Standard Dynamic Range
High Dynamic Range
(More Vivid, More Detail)
Q4: High Dynamic Range
13

Chasing the Human Vision System with HDR
14

Chasing the Human Vision System with HDR
15

Scenes Where HDR Performs Well
Expand the User’s Expression
Movie CG/Game Advertisement
(Signage, Event)
Digital Archive
(Museum)
Convey the Atmosphere/Reality
Music LIVE, concert Sports Nature, Night-view
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Q3+Q4: Wide Color Gamut (WCG) + High Dynamic Range (HDR)
SDR
SDR
HDR
HDR+WCG
More vivid, More details
More real, More colorful
17

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Q3+Q4: Wide Color Gamut (WCG) + High Dynamic Range (HDR)

𝑩 = 𝟖 𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔 → 𝟐𝟖 = 𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝑳𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒔
– More colours
– More bits (10-bit)
– Banding, Contouring, Ringing
Q5: Quantization (Bit Depth)
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𝑉
𝑝−𝑝 = 2𝐵
. ∆
𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑠 = 2𝐵
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 = ∆
𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔 → 𝟐𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝑳𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒔
Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio
𝑺𝑸𝑵𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝑺𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓(𝑹𝑴𝑺)
𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑵𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓(𝑹𝑴𝑺)
= 𝟔𝑩 + 𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 𝐝𝐁
∆

Q5: Quantization (Bit Depth)
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𝑩 = 𝟖 𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔 → 𝟐𝟖
× 𝟐𝟖
× 𝟐𝟖
= 𝟏𝟔. 𝟕 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒔
𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔 → 𝟐𝟏𝟎
× 𝟐𝟏𝟎
× 𝟐𝟏𝟎
= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟕 𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒔

Brief Summary of ITU-R BT.709, BT.2020, and BT.2100
− ITU-R BT.709, BT.2020 and BT.2100 address transfer function, color space, matrix coefficients, and more.
− The following table is a summary comparison of those three documents.
Parameter ITU-R BT.709 ITU-R BT.2020 ITU-R BT.2100
Spatial Resolution HD UHD, 8K HD, UHD, 8K
Framerates 24, 25, 30, 50, 60
24, 25, 30, 50, 60,
100, 120
24, 25, 30, 50, 60,
100, 120
Interlace/Progressive Interlace, Progressive Progressive Progressive
Color Space BT.709 BT.2020 BT.2020
Dynamic Range SDR (BT.1886) SDR (BT.1886) HDR (PQ, HLG)
Bit Depth 8, 10 10, 12 10, 12
Color Representation RGB, YCBCR RGB, YCBCR RGB, YCBCR, ICTCP
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What’s Important in UHD
Next Gen Audio
WCG
HDR
New EOTF
HFR (> 50 fps)
Screen Size
4K Resolution
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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Relative Bandwidth Demands of 4K,HDR, WCG, HFR
(Reference: HD SDR BT.709 8-Bit)
4K UHDTV
High Frame Rate
120FPS
High Frame Rate
60FPS
HDR
Color Gamut
10-Bit Bit Depth
23

Devoncroft’s Big Broadcast Survey (BBS)
− The dozens of times at conferences including Broadcast Asia, CES, IBC, NAB, NAB NY, and SVG.
− The Devoncroft’s Big Broadcast Survey (BBS), the largest study of broadcast and digital media end-users.
− BBS is conducted annually for more than a decade, with 6,000 – 10,000 media technology executives
participating each year.
− The unrivalled richness of the BBS data set provides Devoncroft with unique insight into the factors that
move markets, as well as the brands that are most likely to be successful over time.
• 2019 Big Broadcast Surveys
• More than 100 countries
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Most Important Technology Trend
Industry Global Trend Index
26

27
− The chart is visualized as a weighted index, not as a measure of the number of people that said which trend was most
important to them (a statistical weighting is applied to results, based on how research participants ranked).
− It is a measure of what research participants say is commercially important to their businesses in the future, not what they
are doing now, or where they are spending money today

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− The chart is visualized as a weighted index, not as a measure of the number of people that said which trend was most
important to them (a statistical weighting is applied to results, based on how research participants ranked).
− It is a measure of what research participants say is commercially important to their businesses in the future, not what they
are doing now, or where they are spending money today
2020
Rank
2020 BBS Broadcast Global Trend
Index*
1 Multi-platform content delivery (2)
2 IP networking & content delivery (1)
3 4K / UHD (3)
4 5G (6)
5 Remote production (13)
6 Cloud computing / Virtualization (7)
7 Artificial Intelligence / Machine Learning (4)
8 Move to automated workflows (5)
9 Improvements in video compression efficiency (10)
10 Cyber Security (12)
11 High Dynamic Range (HDR) (11)
12 Centralized operations (playout, transmission etc.) (18)
13 Next generation broadcasting (ATSC 3.0, DVB T-2 etc)
(15)
14 File-based / tapeless workflows (9)
15 Targeted / Programmatic advertising (16)
16 Video on demand/SVOD (17)
17 Transition to multi-channel / immersive audio (8)
18 Virtual Reality (14)
19 Transition to HDTV / 3Gbps (1080p) operations (19)
20 Outsourced operations (playout, transmission etc.) (20)
*2019 rankings shown in parentheses
Source: Devoncroft 2020 Big Broadcast
Survey

− The evolution of the BBS Broadcast Industry Global Trend Index in each of the years 2011, 2015 and 2019 is shown in the
table below
29

− The evolution of the BBS Broadcast Industry Global Trend Index in each of the years 2011, 2015 and 2020 is shown in the
table below
30

31
BBS Broadcast Industry Global Project Index
− Unlike industry trend data, which highlights what respondents are thinking or talking about doing in the future, this
information provides direct feedback about what major capital projects are being implemented by broadcast
technology end-users around the world, and provides useful insight into the expenditure plans of the industry.
The result is the 2020 BBS Broadcast Industry
Global Project Index, shown below, which
measures the number of projects that BBS
participants are currently implementing or
have budgeted to implement.

32
BBS Broadcast Industry Global Project Index
− Unlike industry trend data, which highlights what respondents are thinking or talking about doing in the future, this
information provides direct feedback about what major capital projects are being implemented by broadcast
technology end-users around the world, and provides useful insight into the expenditure plans of the industry.
The result is the 2020 BBS Broadcast Industry
Global Project Index, shown below, which
measures the number of projects that BBS
participants are currently implementing or
have budgeted to implement.

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− IHS Markit combines information, analytics and expertise to provide solutions for business, finance and government.
− We help our customers see why things happen and focus on what really matters so they can make confident decisions to
improve efficiency, outpace competitors and drive growth.
Ex: 4K TV Penetration Trend

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− IHS Markit combines information, analytics and expertise to provide solutions for business, finance and government. We
help our customers see why things happen and focus on what really matters so they can make confident decisions to
improve efficiency, outpace competitors and drive growth.
Ex: UHD Household Share Forecast

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Ex: HDR TV and Size Category Shipments

36
UHD Dashboard 2017 by HIS Markit

37
Ex: A Tale of Two Transitions, 4K/UHD and HD

Human Visual System
40
‫جانبی‬ ‫خمیده‬ ‫هسته‬
‫قشر‬
(
‫پوسته‬
)
‫بینایی‬
‫بینایی‬ ‫عصب‬
‫چشم‬

Human Visual System
41
Cornea ‫قرنيه‬
Retina ‫چشم‬ ‫شبکيه‬
Sclera ‫چشم‬ ‫سخت‬ ‫سفيده‬ ‫يا‬ ‫صلبيه‬
Pupil ‫حدقه‬، ‫چشم‬ ‫مردمک‬
Choroid ‫مشيميه‬
Ciliary ‫مژگان‬
Suspensory Ligament‫تعليق‬ ‫رباط‬
Iris ‫عنبيه‬
Vitreous ‫زجاجيه‬
Macula ‫شبکيه‬ ‫مرکزی‬ ‫قسمت‬

Human Visual System
42
Image Formation
cornea, sclera, pupil, iris, lens,
retina, fovea
Transduction
retina, rods, and cones
Processing
optic nerve, brain ‫چشم‬ ‫مردمک‬
(
‫حدقیه‬
)
‫قرنیه‬
‫عنبیه‬
‫عدسی‬
(
‫بافت‬
)
‫ملتحمه‬
‫چشم‬ ‫شبکیه‬
‫بینایی‬ ‫عصب‬
‫ماکوال‬
(
‫مرکزی‬ ‫قسمت‬
‫شبکیه‬
)
‫مشیمیه‬
‫مژگانی‬ ‫بخش‬
‫زجاجیه‬ ‫بخش‬
(
‫ای‬ ‫شیشه‬
)
‫چشم‬ ‫سخت‬ ‫سفیده‬ ‫یا‬ ‫صلبیه‬
‫بینایی‬ ‫صفحه‬
(
‫کور‬ ‫لکه‬
)
(
‫بافت‬
)
‫ملتحمه‬
‫جلویی‬ ‫محفظه‬
Fovea

Human Visual System
)middle layer of the eye(

Human Visual System
(
‫بافت‬
)
‫ملتحمه‬

Human Visual System
‫قرنیه‬

Human Visual System
‫چشم‬ ‫مردمک‬
(
‫حدقیه‬
)

Human Visual System
Structure of the retina layers
‫چشم‬ ‫شبکیه‬

Human Visual System
− The macula is the functional center of the retina (about 5 mm in diameter).
− It gives us the ability to see “20/20” and provides the best color vision.
− Central Macula Called Fovea (In the very center of the macular region is the fovea).
− Small region (1 or 2°) at the center of the visual field containing the highest density of cones (and no rods).
− The fovea is perhaps the most important part of the eye. Very often, vision is not lost until the fovea is affected by
diseases.
49
)central area of the retina(
Fovea

The human eye has one lens (used to focus) …
… an iris (used to adjust the light level)…
… and retina (used to sense the image).
The retina is made up of rod and cone shaped cells.
• About 120 million rods used for black & white (70 to 150 million cones in each eye).
• About 7 million cones used for colour (6 to 7 million cones in each eye).
Human Visual System
50
The three types have peak wavelengths in the range of 564–580 nm, 534–545 nm, and 420–440 nm, respectively, depending on the individual.
S : 420~440 nm (closed to blue) (2%)
M: 534~545 nm (green) (33%)
L : 564~580 nm (closed to red) (65%)
S = Short wavelength cone
M = Medium wavelength cone
L = Long wavelength cone
Rod cells
S-cone
M-cone
L-cone

− The highest point on each curve is called the “peak wavelength”, indicating the wavelength of radiation that the cone is
most sensitive to it.
Normalized Human Cone Sensitivity
Human Cone Sensitivity
51
M: 534~545 nm (green) (33%)
L : 564~580 nm (closed to red) (65%)
Rod cells
S-cone
M-cone
L-cone

• There are 70 to 150 million rods in each eye.
• Contain photo-pigment
• Respond to low energy
• Enhance sensitivity
• Concentrated in retina, but outside of fovea (Distributed over the retina
surface)
• One type, sensitive to grayscale changes
• Rods don’t discern fine details.
• Rods give a general picture of the field of view.
• Rod vision is called scotopic or DIM-LIGHT VISION.
• There are 6 to 7 million cones in each eye.
• Contain photo-pigment
• Respond to high energy
• Enhance perception
• Concentrated in fovea, exist sparsely in retina
• Three types, sensitive to different wavelengths
• Each cone is connected to its own nerve end, so human can
resolve fine details.
• Cone vision is called photopic or BRIGHT-LIGHT VISION
Cones Rods
Human Visual System
52

Fovea - Small region (1 or 2°) at the center of the visual field containing the highest density of cones (and no rods).
• The centre of the image is the fovea.
– The fovea sees colour only.
• The nerve leaves the eye at the blind spot.
• Fovea is small, dense region of receptors only cones (no rods) gives visual acuity.
• Outside fovea fewer receptors overall larger proportion of rods.
Human Visual System
53

Human Visual System
Rabbit Visual Fields Human Visual Fields
55

56
Types of Visible Perception Possible
− As move further from fovea, vision becomes more limited
− Colour vision only possible in central visual field
(Left eye)

57
Vertical and Horizontal Fields of View
(Binocular
Vision)
(Monocular Vision)
Visual Limit Left Eye (94°)
Visual Limit Right Eye (94°)
R
L
Normal
Viewing
Field
Normal
Viewing
Field

58
Horizontal field of view
• The central field of vision for most people covers an angle of
between 50° and 60° (objects are recognized).
• Within this angle, both eyes observe an object simultaneously.
• This creates a central field of greater magnitude than that
possible by each eye separately.
• This central field of vision is termed the 'binocular field' and within
this field
 images are sharp
 depth perception occurs
 colour discrimination is possible
Vertical Field of View
• The typical line of sight is considered horizontal or 0 °.
• A person’s natural or normal line of sight is normally a 10 ° cone of
view below the horizontal and, if sitting, approximately 15 °.
Vertical and Horizontal Fields of View

How Many Megapixels Is the Human Eye?
− According to scientist and photographer Dr. Roger Clark, the resolution of the human eye is 576
megapixels (www.curiosity.com (NOV 14, 2018)). But what does this mean, really?
− A 576-megapixel resolution means that in order to create a screen with a picture so sharp and clear that
you can't distinguish the individual pixels, you would have to pack 576 million pixels into an area the size
of your field of view.
− To get to his number, Dr. Clark assumed optimal visual acuity across the field of view; that is, it assumes
that your eyes are moving around the scene before you.
− But in a single snapshot-length glance, the resolution drops to a fraction of that: around 5–15 megapixels.
− That's because your eyes have a lot of flaws that wouldn't be acceptable in a camera.
• You only see high resolution in a very small area in the center of your vision, called the fovea.
• You have a blind spot where your optic nerve meets up with your retina.
− You move your eyes around a scene not only to take in more information but to correct for these
imperfections in your visual system.
59

The Wrong Question
− Is the human eye really analogous to a camera?
− Since the human eye doesn’t see in pixels at all, it’s pretty hard to
compare them to a digital display.
− Really, though, the megapixel resolution of your eyes is the wrong
question.
− The eye isn't a camera lens, taking snapshots to save in your
memory bank.
− It's more like a detective, collecting clues from your surrounding
environment, then taking them back to the brain to put the pieces
together and form a complete picture.
− There's certainly a screen resolution at which our eyes can no
longer distinguish pixels — and according to some, it already exists
— but when it comes to our daily visual experience, talking in
megapixels is way too simple.
60

Global Picture Controls
Original
Brightness Contrast
Hue Saturation
61

(Very Bright and Shiny Color, Clear and Lively Color)
(Not Bright or Shiny Color)
Hue, Saturation and Luminance
62
Luminance Saturation
Hue
Chrominance

HUE
Saturation= 255
Luminance = 128
63

Saturation
Hue = 156
Luminance = 150
Saturation ranges =255 – 0
64

Luminance
Hue = 156
Sat = 200
Luminance ranges =255 – 0
65

• Hue ⇒ a measure of the colour
− Sometimes called “Chroma Phase”.
• Saturation ⇒ a measure of colour intensity
− Sometimes simply called “Color Intensity”.
• Luminance (Luminosity) (Intensity (Gray Level)) ⇒ a measure of brightness
− Sometimes simply called “Brightness” or “Lightness” (!?).
66
Chrominance (Chromaticity)

yellow
green
blue
#
Photons
Wavelength
Mean Hue
The dominant color as perceived by an observer
Hue is an attribute associated with the dominant wavelength in a mixture of light waves.
− Hue represents dominant color as perceived by an observer.
− Thus, when we call an object red, orange, or yellow, we are referring to its hue.
67

Variance Saturation
Wavelength
high
medium
low
hi.
m
ed.
low
#
Photons
The relative purity or the amount of white light mixed with a hue
Saturation refers to the relative purity or the amount of white light mixed with a hue.
− The pure spectrum colors are fully saturated.
− Colors such as pink (red and white) and lavender (violet and white) are less saturated, with the degree of
saturation being inversely proportional to the amount of white light added.
68

Area Luminance
#
Photons
Wavelength
B. Area Lightness
bright
dark
A measure of the amount of energy that an observer perceives from a light source
Luminance (Luminosity) (Intensity (Gray Level)) ⇒ a measure of brightness
− It is a measure of the amount of energy that an observer perceives from a light source (visible spectrum).
− Sometimes simply called “Brightness” or “Lightness” (!?).
69

Hue is an attribute associated with the dominant wavelength in a mixture of light waves.
− Hue represents dominant color as perceived by an observer.
− Thus, when we call an object red, orange, or yellow, we are referring to its hue.
Saturation refers to the relative purity or the amount of white light mixed with a hue.
− The pure spectrum colors are fully saturated.
− Colors such as pink (red and white) and lavender (violet and white) are less saturated, with the degree of
saturation being inversely proportional to the amount of white light added.
Luminance (Luminosity) (Intensity (Gray Level)) is a measure of brightness
− It is a measure of the amount of energy that an observer perceives from a light source.
Hue and saturation taken together are called chrominance or chromaticity and, therefore, a color may be
characterized by its brightness and chromaticity.
70

− Radiance is the total amount of energy that flows from the light source, and it is usually measured in watts
(W).
− Luminance, measured in lumens (lm), is a measure of the amount of energy that an observer perceives
from a light source.
• For example, light emitted from a source operating in the far infrared region of the spectrum could
have significant energy (radiance), but an observer would hardly perceive it; its luminance would be
almost zero.
− Brightness is a subjective descriptor that is practically impossible (difficult) to measure.
• It embodies the achromatic notion (idea) of intensity (gray level), and is one of the key factors in
describing color sensation.
Brightness vs. Luminance
71
In video Signal Volt

− Cone vision is called photopic or bright-light vision.
− The objects that appear brightly colored in daylight appear as colorless forms in
moonlight because only the rods are stimulated. This phenomenon is known as
scotopic or dim-light vision.
− The range of light intensity levels to which the human visual system can adapt is
enormous—on the order of 1010
— from the scotopic threshold to the glare limit.
− Experimental evidence indicates that subjective brightness (intensity as
perceived by the human visual system) is a logarithmic function of the light
intensity incident on the eye.
− The long solid curve represents the range of intensities to which the visual system
can adapt.
− In photopic vision alone, the range is about 106.
− The transition from scotopic to photopic vision is gradual over the approximate
range from −3 to −1 millilambert (0.001 to 0.1 mL) in the log scale, as the double
branches of the adaptation curve in this range show.
− 1 lambert (L) =
1
𝜋
candela per square centimetre (0.3183 cd/cm2) or
10000
𝜋
cd m−2
Brightness vs. Luminance
72

− The key point in interpreting the impressive dynamic range depicted in Fig is that
the visual system cannot operate over such a range simultaneously. Rather, it
accomplishes this large variation by changing its overall sensitivity, a
phenomenon known as brightness adaptation.
− The total range of distinct intensity levels the eye can discriminate simultaneously
is rather small when compared with the total adaptation range.
− For a given set of conditions, the current sensitivity level of the visual system is
called the brightness adaptation level, which may correspond, for example, to
brightness Ba.
− The short intersecting curve represents the range of subjective brightness that the
eye can perceive when adapted to this level.
• This range is rather restricted, having a level Bb at, and below which, all
stimuli are perceived as indistinguishable blacks.
• The upper portion of the curve is not actually restricted but, if extended too
far, loses its meaning because much higher intensities would simply raise the
adaptation level higher than Ba.
Brightness Adaptation
73

74

cylindrical coordinate system
75

Color Space
78
Bottom View
Top View

B-Y, U=0.493 (B’-Y’)
R-Y, V=0.877 (R’-Y’)
Chroma
Chroma (Hue and Saturation)
79
𝜑

Additive vs. Subtractive Color Mixing
80

Additive vs. Subtractive Color Mixing
Subtractive Color Mix
The paint absorbs or subtracts out
wavelengths and the color you see
is the wavelengths that were
reflected back to you (not
absorbed)
Additive mixture
The wavelengths are added
together so the final color you see is
the sum of the wavelengths.
81
White Light
Red Green Blur
White Light
Red Green Blur
White Light
Red Green Blur
Green Blur Red Green
Red Blur

Additive Primary Colours
Additive Primary colours
• Red, Green & Blue are additive primaries - used for light.
82

Subtractive Primaries Colours
Subtractive Primary colours:
• Magenta, Yellow & Cyan.
− A subtractive color model explains the mixing of a limited set of dyes, inks, paint pigments to create a
wider range of colors, each the result of partially or completely subtracting (that is, absorbing) some
wavelengths of light and not others.
− The color that a surface displays depends on which parts of the visible spectrum are not absorbed and
therefore remain visible.
83

Subtractive Color Mixing, Examples
84

− All colour images can be broken down into 3 primary colours.
− Subtractive primaries: Magenta, Yellow & Cyan.
− Additive primaries :Red, Green & Blue
Additive vs. Subtractive Color Primaries
85

Secondary and Tertiary Colours
− Secondary Additive Colours: Cyan, Yellow, Magenta
− Secondary Subtractive Colours: Red, Green, Blue
• Secondary additive colours are primary subtractive colours and visa versa
− Additive tertiary: White
− Subtractive tertiary: Black
86

Using Subtractive and Additive Primaries.
Using subtractive primaries.
• Colour printers have Cyan, Magenta & Yellow pigments.
• Black often included.
Using additive primaries.
• Colour primaries are Red, Green & Blue
• Film and drama set lighting uses additive primaries.
• Video uses additive primaries.
The camera splits image into 3 primaries.
Television builds image from 3 primaries.
87

88
C, M, and Y components
Using Subtractive Primaries
R, G, and B components

− The color circle (color wheel) originated with Sir Isaac Newton, who in the seventeenth century created its
first form by joining the ends of the color spectrum.
− The color circle is a visual representation of colors that are arranged according to the chromatic
relationship between them.
Colour Circle (Colour Wheel)
89

− Based on the color wheel, for example, the proportion of any color can be increased by
• raising the proportion of the two immediately adjacent colors
• decreasing the amount of the opposite (or complementary) color in the image
• decreasing the percentage of the two colors adjacent to the complement.
Magenta
Adding
Red and Blue
Removing
Green
90
Removing
Cyan and Yellow
↑

− Suppose, for instance, that there is too much magenta in an RGB image. It can be decreased:
• by removing both red and blue
• by adding green. Magenta
Removing
Red and Blue
Adding
Green
91
↑

Color Temperature, Recall
– The spectral distribution of light emitted from a piece of carbon (a
black body that absorbs all radiation without transmission and
reflection) is determined only by its temperature.
– When heated above a certain temperature, carbon will start
glowing and emit a color spectrum particular to that temperature.
– This discovery led researchers to use the temperature of heated
carbon as a reference to describe different spectrums of light.
– This is called Color temperature.
92
Transmission, Reflection, Absorb

Spectral Power Distribution of CIE Illuminants
94
Relative
Spectral
Power

Emission Spectrum and Reflectance Spectrums
95

− For any given object, we can measure its reflectance (or emission) spectrum, and use that to precisely
identify a color.
− If we can reproduce the spectrum, we can certainly reproduce the color!
− The sunlight reflected from a point on a lemon might have a reflectance spectrum that looks like this:
𝑆 𝜆
Emission Spectrum and Reflectance Spectrums
96
Emission
Reflectance

Spectral Power Distribution of Light Reflected from Specimen
97

− The highest point on each curve is called the “peak wavelength”, indicating the wavelength of radiation that the cone is
most sensitive to it.
Normalized Human Cone Sensitivity
Human Cone Sensitivity
98
M: 534~545 nm (green) (33%)
L : 564~580 nm (closed to red) (65%)
Rod cells
S-cone
M-cone
L-cone

Ex: Cones extraction for a point on the lemon
− By looking at the normalized areas under the curves, we can see how much the radiation reflected from the real lemon
excites each of cones.
− In this case, the normalized excitations of the S, M, and L cones are 0.02, 0.12, and 0.16 respectively.
Normalized Excitation of the S, M and L Cones
99
Emission
Reflectance

Radiometry and Photometry
Radiometry
– The science of measuring light in any portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
including infrared, ultraviolet, and visible light.
– This range includes the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
– Wavelength from 0.01 to 1000 micrometer (10nm to 1mm) (Note: micro=10-6, nano =10-9)
Photometry
– Photometry is like radiometry except that it weights everything by the sensitivity of the human eye
– Deals with only the visible spectrum (=visible band)
– A wavelength range of about 380 to 780 nanometer.
– Do not deal with the perception of color itself, but rather the perceived strength of various
wavelengths
100

101
Illuminance
Lux or lm / m²
Luminance
cd/m² or nit
(In a given direction per
unit solid angle)
Luminance
cd/m² or nit
Backlight
LCD Panel

Radiant Flux
(Radiant Power)
The radiant energy emitted, reflected, transmitted or received by an object, per unit time.
Radiant Flux is defines over wavelengths from 0.01 to 1000 μm and includes the regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum referred to as Ultra Violet (UV), Visible, and Infra Red (IR).
Watt
W or J/s
Radiant Intensity The radiant intensity is defined as the radiant flux per unit solid angle. It can also be
applied to emitted, transmitted, reflected or received radiation by an object.
W/sr
Luminous Flux
(Luminous Power)
Luminous flux is a measure of the total amount of visible light emitted by a light source.
The weighted emitted electromagnetic waves according to “luminosity function” model
of the human eye's sensitivity to various wavelengths (Visible Light).
Lumen
lm
Luminous Intensity The quantity of visible light emitted by a light source in a given direction per unit solid
angle.
Candela
1cd = 1lm / sr
Illuminance The amount of light or luminous flux falling on a surface. Lux (lumens per square meter)
1lx = 1lm / m²
Foot-candles (lumens per square foot)
1fc = 1lm / ft²
Luminance The luminous intensity that is reflected or emitted from an object per unit area in a
specific direction.
(a measure of the flux emitted from, or reflected by, a relatively flat and uniform surface)
Candela per square meter
cd/m² or nit
102

Negative and Positive Pictures
Positive color Negative color
Monochrome negative picture
Color positive picture Color negative picture
Monochrome positive picture
104

Negative and Reversal Films
It is inverted during the scanning or optical
printing process to get the correct colors.
105
(Also called “Print” film)
(Also called “Reversal ” film)

106
− Negative film is printed onto photographic paper to create printed positive images or converted to positive film for
projection by projector (Film Development).
Printed positive images on print
film
2.40:1
Audio
Negative Image Positive Image
Print
Optical Sound

Negative film: It offers high exposure latitude and does not handle under exposure very well. (dark areas)
Reversal film: It offers Limited exposure latitude and does not handle high exposure. (highlighted areas)
• More natural and softer colors than positive films
• Allowing for a much greater latitude with exposure and dynamic
range.
• Usually have less contrast, but a wider dynamic range, than the “final
printed positive images”.
• The contrast typically increases when they are printed (Contrast may
be adjusted at the time of scanning or post-processing)
• Rich, saturated colors (vivid colors)
• Strong contrast
• The fine grain (almost as digital images)
• Higher resolution (fine grain) and better sharpness
• Faster process (more easer )
• Cheaper
107

Review of Film Standards
109
35 mm Full Frame

Film Gauge (Width of the Film)
Four commonly in use for camera films: Super 8, 16 mm, 35mm, and 65 mm
– The 35 mm is most popular for feature films, commercials and US television.
• It can be printed to 35 mm print film or scanned or transferred on a telecine (film to video).
• Super 35 uses the space reserved for the soundtrack.
– The 16 mm film is typically supplied in single perforated format except for use in high-speed cameras, which use double
perforated film.
• The “Super 16” uses the space reserved for the soundtrack.
• The “Super 16” format is typically used for low to medium budget feature films, where it can be blown-up to 35 mm release prints (for
shooting with lower budget compared to 35 mm film).
• The “Super 16” format is also widely used for television production, where its aspect ratio fits16:9 wide-screen format well.
– The Super 8 is available as both negative film or reversal film, supplied in self-contained cartridges.
– The 65 mm format is used as a camera film gauge for making prints on 70 mm print film for widescreen presentation such
as IMAX and OMNIMAX.
110

Soundtrack on Film
– A soundtrack on film is often identified by a continuous stripe running along the length of the film. It looks
considerably different than the film picture frames.
– The strip may be a reddish-brown color (a magnetic, or "mag," soundtrack).
– It may also look like two strips that contain similar wavy forms (a variable area optical soundtrack), or it may
look like a gray strip of varying darkness (a variable density optical soundtrack).
111

Review of 16 mm Film Standards
Supper 16 mm Film
(included optical sound)
16 mm film
112

Supper 16 mm Film
(included optical sound)
Review of 16 mm Film Standards
113

HD - CIF
1920 x 1080
24p/50Hz/60Hz
PAL video
720 x 575
625/50
NTSC video
720 x 480
525/60
(For Wide Screen American
1.85:1 ~ 1800 x 1000)
114
Raster Comparison
HD: High Definition
CIF: Common Intermediate Format
“2k x 1k”
2K film (Open gate)
2048 x 1540
24 fps
SD
(Standard
Definition)
Supper
16
mm
Film

Review of 35 mm Film
Academy Ratio
The full picture shows the 1.37:1 aspect ratio.
The dotted lines show the border of the very similar 1.33:1 ratio or 4:3
1.85:1 (known as “Widescreen or Flat”), United States
Very similar to 1.78:1 or 16:9
2.40:1 (“Scope” or “Cinema Scope”), United States
1.66:1, Widescreen, Europe
115

116
Optical Sound
(Included Optical Sound)

VISTAVISION (8-Perf)
The 2.40:1 frame is outlined in blue above but the VISTAVISION format is
primarily used for special effects and not entire films.
– VISTAVISION is a 35 mm horizontal format with an eight-perforation pull down (across), which was typically
used with high quality background plates in special effects work and not entire films.
– The camera aperture is approximately 1.5:1 (37.7x 25.2 mm).
118

119
35 mm Full Frame (1.5:1)
35 mm Academy Ratio (1.375:1)

65 mm
– Images made on 65 mm film have a 2.2:1 aspect ratio.
– For projection, the original 65 mm film is printed on 70 mm film.
– The additional 5 mm in 70 mm film are for four magnetic strips holding six tracks of stereophonic sound.
– This was once necessary to accommodate six magnetic sound tracks on the edges of the 70 mm film.
Today a double-system sound system is used with separate CDs having 6-track sound controlled by a time
code printed on the film.
65 mm Film
120
70 mm film (70 mm widescreen)
70 mm film (70 mm widescreen)

IMAX and IMAX DOME (formerly known as OMNIMAX) productions use 65 and 70 mm film but with a
horizontal image and a 15-perforation pulldown (across) for very large-screen shows.
– IMAX DOME films are shot with the same cameras and lenses, but are projected onto a domed screen
through a fisheye lens. The screen itself is tilted somewhat toward the audience, who sit in reclining chairs,
arranged in a steeply-sloping arrangement.
– So, two 70 mm formats are also in current use
• 70 mm widescreen at 2.2:1
• IMAX 70 mm at 1.43:1
– Both are projected onto much larger screens than 35 mm formats.
65 mm IMAX Film
The IMAX 70 mm format (1.43:1) 121
70 mm
70 mm widescreen (2.2:1)
70 mm

Persistence of vision
− It is the phenomenon of the eye by which an afterimage is thought to persist for approximately “one twenty-fifth
of a second” on the retina.
Continuity limit
− By 24 pictures/second we have natural continuity for 90% of movements (but we have flicker).
Flicker limit
− Flicker occurs when there is a “low refresh rate”, allowing the “brightness to drop” for time intervals that are
sufficiently long to be noticed by a human eye (during changing one picture to another one, we have dark
scene).
t
Brightness
t=1/48 s
122
How Many Picture Is Needed in One Second?
At least 48 picture/second.

123
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BBYzqI-fnHE

24 frames per second (fps)
1/24 of a second per frame
including film exposure and pull-down
Exposure time - 1/48
Pull-down time - 1/48
24 frames per second (fps)
Rotary Film
Shutter
124
Film Exposure and Projection

Rotary Film
Shutter
Exposure time
~ 1/24 to ~ 1/2000
Shutter angle can be changed
from ~ 0 to 360 degree
125

126

Rotary Film
Shutter
• Film is projected using double exposure
• Each frame is exposed twice
• Film is projected using
double exposure
• Each frame is exposed
twice
127

Film
“Digital
Film”
HDCAM
24 fps 24 fps
128
Arri telecine
Film Digitalization and Recording

“Digital
Film”
24 fps
“50 Hz World”
4% speed change
“60 Hz World”
3:2 Pull-down
129

3:2 Pull-down
• To speed up video about 4% so that it runs at 25fps (104 min in cinema is changed to 100 min in TV).
• The speed difference will not be noticeable on playback.
4% Speed Change
130

− The 24p system is the first isotropic video production format.
− Runs at the film frame rate of 24 fps
− Originally, 24p was used in the non-linear editing of film-originated material.
− Global format
− Today, 24p formats are being increasingly used for
• aesthetic reasons in image acquisition
• delivering film-like motion characteristics
− Some vendors advertise 24p products as a cheaper alternative to film acquisition.
− Progressive image capture
131
The 24p Video System

Comparison Film vs. Image Sensors
132

133
Film Camera Gates vs. Digital Sensors (Actual Size)
APS: Advanced Photo System (discontinued)
H (high-definition), C (classic) and P (panorama)

Mechanism of Human Eye
– Images (= light) seen with our eyes are directed to and projected onto the eye’s retina (it consists of
several million photosensitive cells).
– The retina reacts to light and converts it into a very small amount of electrical charges.
– These electrical charges are then sent to the brain through the optic nerve system.
135
‫چشم‬ ‫مردمک‬
(
‫حدقیه‬
)

Image Sensors
– Image sensors have photo-sensors that work in a similar way to our retina’s photosensitive cells, to convert
light into a signal charge.
– However, the charge readout method is quite different!!!!!
136

– Each pixel within the image sensor samples the intensity of just one primary color (red, green or blue). In order to provide
full color images from each pixel of the imager, the two other primary colors must be created electronically.
– These missing color components are mathematically calculated or interpolated in the RGB color processor which is
positioned after the image sensor.
– The easiest way to calculate a missing color component:
Add the values of the color components from two surrounding pixels and divide this by two.
Blue color component missing in pixel G22
𝑩𝟐𝟐 = (𝒑𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒍 𝑩𝟐𝟏 + 𝒑𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒍 𝑩𝟐𝟑)/𝟐
138
One-Chip Imaging System

Original Bayer screen output Interpolation Sharpening
139
One-Chip Imaging System

Three-Chip Imaging System
− The dichroic prism system provides more accurate color filtering than a color filter array of a one-chip
system.
− Capturing the red, green, and blue signals with individual imagers generates purer color reproduction.
− Since the image sensing system captures three times more information than a one-chip system allows for
• a much wider dynamic range
• a higher horizontal resolution
140

Image Sensor Size
– Image sensor size is measured diagonally across the imager’s photosensitive area, from corner to corner.
– A larger image sensor size generally translates into better image capture.
– This is because a larger photosensitive area can be used for each pixel.
The benefits of larger image sensors
1. Higher sensitivity
2. Less smear
3. Better signal-to-noise characteristics
4. Use of better lens optics
5. Wider dynamic range
142

143
Image Sensor Size
APS-C: Advanced Photo System-Classic
23.6×15.7 mm
17.3×13 mm
36×24 mm

Image Sensor Size
APS: Advanced Photo System (discontinued)
H (high-definition), C (classic) and P (panorama)
144
Crop Factor =Diagonal35mm FF / Diagonalsensor

– The term Full Frame or FF is used by users of Digital Single-Lens Reflex (DSLR) cameras as a shorthand for an
image sensor format which is the same size as 35mm format (36 mm × 24 mm) film.
Image Sensor Size
146

147
10. Main mirror: To reflect incoming light into the viewfinder compartment. It
must be in an angle of exactly 45 degrees. There is a small semi-transparent area
on it to facilitate auto focus.
9. Sub mirror: To reflect the light passes through the semi-transparent area on the
main mirror to the autofocus (AF) sensor.
8. AE (exposure sensor) sensor: It’s used to provide exposure information and
adjust the exposure settings after calculations under different situations.
7. Image sensor
6. LCD screen: It’s used to display the photos stored in its memory card, settings
and also what will be recorded on the image sensor in the live view mode.
1. Matte focusing screen: A screen on which the light passes through the lens will
project.
2. Condensing lens: A lens that is used to concentrate the incoming light.
3. Pentaprism: To produce a correctly oriented and right side up image and
project it to the viewfinder eyepiece.
4. AF (autofocus sensor) sensor: It’s used to accomplish correct auto focus.
5. Viewfinder eyepiece: To allow us to see what will be recorded on the sensor.
Digital Single-Lens Reflex (DSLR) Cameras

Image Sensor Size
• An old 2/3″ Tube camera would have had a 4:3 active area of about 8.8mm x 6.6mm giving an 11mm diagonal.
• This 4:3 11mm diagonal is the size now used to denote a modern 2/3″ sensor.
148
≃2/3×2/3 inch =11 mm
2/3 inch
Vidicon Tube (2/3 inch in diameter)
2/3 inch
2/3×2/3 inch≃ 11mm
1 inch
1″ tube
1×2/3 inch≃ 16mm

– It’s confusing!!
– But the same 2/3″ lenses as designed for tube cameras in the 1950’s can still be used today on a modern
2/3″ video camera and will give the same field of view today as they did back then.
– This is why some manufacturers are now using the term “1 inch type”, as this is the active area that would
be the equivalent to the active area of an old 1″ diameter Vidicon/Saticon/Plumbicon Tube from the
1950’s.
For comparison:
– 1/3″ → 6mm diag.
– 1/2″ → 8mm diag.
– 2/3″ → 11mm diag.
– 1″ → 16mm diag.
– 4/3″ → 22mm diag.
– A camera with a Super35mm sensor would be the equivalent of approx 35-40mm
– APS-C would be approx 30mm
Image Sensor Size
149

Focal Length and Depth of Field
150
1
Wider Lens for HD and UHD

Aperture and Depth of Field
151
2
More Light for
HD and UHD

Focus Distance and Depth of Field
152
3
Bigger Studio for HD and UHD

Sensor Size and Depth of Field
– Considering we’re using the same focal length (35mm) and aperture (f/8), the larger the sensor size, the larger the depth
of field, and the smaller the sensor size, the narrower the depth of field you’ll see.
153
4
Different field of view

Sensor Size and Depth of Field
– For a given focal length and aperture and with a specific
subject and distance (i.e. same object from the same
distance) ⇒ different frame filling or field of view
– If we consider the “same field of view”, the depth of field will
be narrower in cameras with larger sensors.
– For having same field of view, larger sensors require in order to
fill the frame with that subject.
• Solutions:
 To get closer to their subject
 To use a longer focal length (zoom function)
154
4
Filling the frame with a subject of the
same size from the same distance.
⇒ Less depth of field

Camera Sensor Size vs Megapixels
– Camera sensor size and resolution aren’t necessarily
related to one another.
• A 20 MP phone camera and a 20 MP full-frame camera
both have 20 million pixels and the same resolution.
⇒ However, they don’t have the same image quality.
– A larger sensor allows you to have larger pixels relative to a
smaller sensor with the same resolution.
⇒ The larger pixels on the full-frame camera are
more efficient at gathering light.
⇒ They are not only more sensitive but have better
dynamic range, allowing to get tack-sharp photos.
155

Crop Factor (Camera Sensor Size) and Lens Focal Length Product
⇒ The equivalent view as if you were using a 35mm
camera (a full-frame camera)
– The smaller sensor cuts down on the view provided by the
35mm lens.
– This can be an advantage in smaller sensors when shooting
subject from afar.
– Ex:
• 𝟐 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 = 𝟏 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
⇒ A 200mm lens on a Micro 4/3rds body (2.0x crop factor)
has the reach of a 400mm full-frame camera and weighs
quite a bit less. 156
Crop factor of a sensor × Focal length of the lens

– Charge Transfer from Photo Sensor to Vertical CCD
– Like Water Draining from a Dam.
157
CCD Image Sensor

CCD Image Sensor
158
– Charge Transfer from Photo Sensor to Vertical CCD
– Like Water Draining from a Dam.
Charge to Voltage

– Charge Transfer by CCD in a Bucket-brigade Fashion.
– CCD image sensors get their name from the vertical and horizontal shift registers, which are Charge
Coupled Devices that act as bucket brigades.
159
CCD Image Sensor
Charge
Charge
Charge
Charge

CCD and CMOS Image Sensors
CCD and CMOS sensors perform the same steps, but at
different locations, and in a different sequence.
160

– CMOS sensors have an
amplifier at each pixel.
– The charge is first converted
to a voltage and amplified
right at the pixel.
161
CMOS Image Sensors

Analog Noise
– Where charge is transmitted in the form of an analog signal, the signal will pick up a certain degree of external noise
during its travel. Noise will increase in proportion to the travel distance.
Fixed Pattern Noise
– CMOS sensors have an amplifier at each pixel.
– It would be unreasonable to expect that all of these amplifiers will be exactly equivalent (production process).
– This non-uniformity among amplifiers results in a type of interference known as fixed pattern noise.
– Unlike conventional video noise, which has a random behavior, fixed pattern noise creates a permanent, unwanted
texture that can be especially visible in dark scenes.
– Fortunately, this problem can be corrected by incorporating CDS (correlated double sampling) circuits to cancel this
noise and restore the original signal.
– The "reset switch“ in each pixel also creates FPN.
162
Analog Noise and Fixed Pattern Noise
FPN noise for CCD (left) and CMOS (right) noise

163

164
FPN

– Active-pixel CMOS sensors use a "reset switch“ in each pixel to
drain the accumulated charge of the previous video field, in
preparation for the next video field.
– Unfortunately, the draining process is not perfect. Some electrons
will always remain in the image sensing area.
– These electrons represent switching noise, which can become
part of the video signal.
– Even worse, this noise is of the ‘fixed pattern’ type. Unlike
conventional video noise, which has a random behavior, fixed
pattern noise creates a permanent, unwanted texture that can
be especially visible in dark scenes.
– Modern CMOS sensors combat fixed pattern noise with
Correlated Double Sampling.
– CMOS image sensors conduct charge-to-voltage conversion
twice for every pixel. Both of these voltages are also amplified.
– The column circuit subtracts the noise-only voltage from the
signal-mixed-with-noise voltage to produces an output voltage.
– ⇒ Noise separation and cancelation
Analog Correlated Double Sampling
165

166
− The digital CDS noise cancellation, works by measuring
the noise prior to conversion and then canceling the
noise after the conversion.
• The pixel outputs the amplified noise voltage.
• The column ADC converts the noise voltage to
digital.
• The pixel outputs the amplified signal-with noise
voltage.
• The column ADC converts the signal-with noise
voltage to digital.
• The column ADC subtracts the digital noise value
from the digital signal-with-noise value to create
the digital output value.
Digital Correlated Double Sampling

167
Exmor™ Noise Reduction Technology
Analog CDS
CDS (Correlated Double Sampling)
– As a result, camcorders with Exmor technology
offer lower noise than those that use
conventional HD CMOS sensors.
– This is especially significant under low-light
conditions, where Exmor-equipped cameras
perform very well.

Conclusion
At the current state of development, CMOS and CCD sensors both deserve a place in broadcast and
professional video cameras.
– CMOS is particularly outstanding where issues of power consumption, systemization and processing speed
are most important.
– CCDs excel where the images will be subjected to the most critical evaluation.
– Recent CMOS sensors deliver:
• Improved global shutter
• Low dark and spatial noise
• Good image quality in low light condition
• Higher quantum efficiency
Together with the existing advantages in speed and cost which makes CMOS sensors suitable for a lot of
vision applications.
168

Electronic Shutter
– When a shutter speed selection is made with the electronic shutter (e.g., 1/500 second), electrons
accumulated only within this period are read out to the vertical register.
– All the electrons accumulated before this period – the gray triangle in Figure– are discarded to the CCD’s
N-substrate , an area within the CCD used to dispose such unnecessary electrons.
– Discarding electrons until the 1/500-second period commences means that only movement captured
during the shutter period contributes to the image, effectively reducing the picture blur of fast-moving
objects.
169
1/500
sec
1/500
sec
1/500
sec

170
Electronic Shutter
Shutter OFF Shutter ON

171
Electronic Shutter
Slower shutter (More light, Blurs motion)
Faster shutter (Less light, Freeze motion)

Field , Frame , Progressive , Interlace
− Continuous scan is called a progressive scan.
− Progressive scans tend to flicker for 25fps.
− Television splits each frame into two scans.
• One for the odd lines and another for the even lines.
• Each interlaced scan called a field.
• Therefore odd lines (odd field) +even lines (even field) = 1 frame.
− This is called an interlaced scan.
Interlace benefits:
I. The needed bandwidth for odd lines (odd field) +even lines (even field) is equal to the needed bandwidth for one frame
(ex: 50i/25p).
II. Interlaced scans flicker a lot less than progressive scans (ex: 50i/25p).
172
1st field: odd field 2nd field: even field
One frame
Interlace Scanning

Odd lines
Even lines
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
:
:
:
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
Progressive Scan
173

Odd lines
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
:
:
:
Field 1
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576 174

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
:
:
:
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
Even lines
Field 2
175

field2
field1
178
Interlace Scan

182
1. Electron Guns
2. Electron Beams
3. Focusing Coils
4. Deflection Coils
5. Anode Connection
6. Shadow Mask
7. Phosphor layer
8. Close-up of the phosphor coated inner
side of the electron
Even Field Odd Field
+

During One Readout Cycle:
− Progressive CCDs create one picture frame.
(higher vertical resolution, twice the transfer rate than Interlace CCDs).
− Interlace CCDs create one interlace field.
(higher sensitivity).
Interlace CCD (Default: Field Integration mode)
Progressive CCD
Faster clocking of the horizontal shift register
(all lines are readout at once)
183
Progressive & Interlace CCD
Field Rate Charging (1/50 sec)
Frame Rate Charging (1/25 sec)

Frame Integration Mode for Creating Interlaced Video (50i)
High vertical resolution, High sensitivity, Picture blur
– To create even fields, only the charges of the CCD’s even lines are read out.
– To create odd fields, only the charges of the CCD’s odd lines are read out.
184
1/25

Field Integration Mode for Creating Interlaced Video (50i)
Reducing the sensitivity by one-half, Less vertical resolution, Less picture blur
– For an even field, B and C, D and E, and F and G are added together
– For an odd field, A and B, C and D, and E and F are added together.
185
1/50

– Field Integration method reduces the blur by shortening the charge accumulation period to the field rate
(e.g., 1/50 second for PAL video).
– Shortening the accumulation period and alternating the lines to read out – to create even and odd fields
would reduce the accumulated charges to one half of the Frame Integration method.
– This would result in reducing the sensitivity by one-half.
– After charges being transferred to the vertical register, the charges from two adjacent photo-sites are
added together to represent one pixel of the interlaced scanning line.
– Both even and odd fields are created by altering the photo-site pairs used to create a scanning line.
– This method provides less vertical resolution compared to the Frame Integration mode.(two adjacent
pixels is averaged in the vertical direction).
186
Field Integration Mode for Creating Interlaced Video (50i)
Field Integration has become the default method for all interlace video cameras, to
capture pictures without image blur ⇒ Field Rate Charging (1/50 sec)

Progressive scan (25p)
− Delivers higher spatial resolution for a given frame size
(better detail)
• Has the same (temporal) look as film
• Good for post and transfer to film
• No motion tear
Interlaced scan (50i)
− Delivers higher temporal resolution for a given frame size
(better motion portrayal)
• Has the same (temporal) look as video
• Shooting is easier
• Post production on video is easier
• Interlacing causes motion tears and ‘video’ look
187
Scanning Techniques Pros and Cons

188
Progressive or Interlace Shooting

Interlace (50i)
Progressive (25p)
Delivers higher spatial resolution for a given
frame size (better detail)
Delivers higher temporal resolution for a given
frame size (better motion portrayal)
193
Interlaced Frame (50i) and Progressive Frame (25p)

Odd and even lines are in different places when there is fast motion
Odd field Even field Odd + Even
No
motion
Motion
Fast
194

Progressive (50p) Interlace (50i)
195

Persistence of vision
− It is the phenomenon of the eye by which an afterimage is thought to persist for approximately “one twenty-fifth
of a second” on the retina.
Continuity limit
− By 24 pictures/second we have natural continuity for 90% of movements (but we have flicker).
Flicker limit
− Flicker occurs when there is a “low refresh rate”, allowing the “brightness to drop” for time intervals that are
sufficiently long to be noticed by a human eye (during changing one picture to another one, we have dark
scene).
t
Brightness
t=1/50 s
197
At least 48 picture/second.

− Flicker and Judder are terms used to describe visual interruptions between successive fields of a displayed
image. It affects both Film & TV.
− If the update rate is too low, persistence of vision is unable to give illusion of continuous motion.
− Flicker is caused by:
• Slow update of motion Information
• Refresh rate of the display device
• Phosphor persistence vs motion blur
Flicker
198
t
Brightness
t=1/50 s

Flicker
199
OLED: Quick response with virtually no motion blur

Flicker
200
Without
Anti-Flicker
Anti-Flicker
LED lighting

Judder
Judder definition: Shake and vibrate rapidly and with force
Judder in TV:
• Judder looks like a jerky movement that is not smooth.
• It means jumps, shivering (sliding) and jerkiness.
• Judder makes camera movement look stuttered, and is especially noticeable with panning shots.
Judder reasons:
• Judder usually results from “Aliasing” between Sampling rates (in recording), Display rates and Scene motion.
• Basically if the displacement across the frame is too grate compared to the capture frame rate, judder will cure.
• Judder is an inconsistence time frame (some frames stay on the screen more than other ones)
203

Judder
Judder from Frame Drop
– Frame drops can be caused by the motion interpolation feature.
• If the movement is to fast and the TV does not know how to interpolate it, it will simply repeat the previous frame
another time. This will cause judder.
– Frame drop can be caused by an app that is too slow
• On some older TVs, the native apps are not very fast, so some have problems keeping up with the streaming video,
and some might drop frames from time to time. This is usually rare though.
– Frame drop can be caused by packet lost in video streaming
204
t
t=1/50 s
t
t=1/50 s
Judder by Frame Drop

Judder
Judder from 3:2 Pulldown
– When content recorded on film (24pfs) is shown on a television with a 60Hz refresh rate.
– Software in the TV or DVD player detects the incoming signal and fills in the missing 36 frames by repeating
frames that your eye has already seen.
– To ensure that there will consistently be 60 frames per second, the first frame is displayed on the TV screen 3 times
and the second frame is displayed 2 times.
– Because alternating frames are not repeated in a consistent manner, the picture on the television screen is
actually a little jittery (this is called judder).
– Most of us don't notice judder because a second goes by very quickly and we are used to viewing films on
television with a 3:2 pulldown.
205

Judder
Judder from Fast Panning
– In film, a classical rule says: minimum time is 7 seconds for a pan that crossers one horizontal fields of views (HFOV) (this is
the lens HFOV not the entire scene). It does not guarantee absence of judder.
– This guides was considered to be is independent of lens and sensor but in truth other parameters do influence the answer.
– The time for a pan is effected by:
• Number of recording frame per second: 1 stop frame rate ⇒ -1 stope pan time
• Number of degrees to pan: 1 stop pan angle ⇒ 1 stope pan time
• Focal length of the lens (Tele and Wide Lenses): -1 stop HFOV ⇒ 1 stope pan time
• Sensor resolution: 1 stop sensor resolution (2K to 4K) ⇒ -1 stope pan time
• Hiding factor of motion blur (shutter speed): slower shutter speed than 𝟏𝟖𝟎°
⇒ less action freezing ⇒ less judder
206
Slower shutter (More light, Blurs motion)
Faster shutter (Less light, Freeze motion)

Judder
Pan angle @ 7K, 24fps, F.L=38 mm
25 degree 3.5 sec
50 degree 7 sec
100 degree 14 sec
200 degree 28 sec
207
Resolution @ F.L=38 mm, 24 fps, HFOV=50 degree
8K 6.2 sec
7K 7 sec
4K 12 sec
2K 23 sec
Focal Length @ 7K, 24fps, HFOV=50 degree
15mm 3.5 sec
38mm 7 sec
80mm 14 sec
160mm 27 sec
FPS @ 7K, F.L=38 mm, HFOV=50 degree
12 fps 14 sec
24 fps 7 sec
28 fps 3.5 sec
60 fps 1.7 sec
https://www.red.com/panning-speed

Judder
208
24P
TV with no judder
TV with judder

209
Human Visual Acuity
− Human visual acuity is the spatial resolving capacity of the human eye (as a function of viewing distance)
⇒ Ability of the eye to see fine detail.
− Visual acuity is limited by
• diffraction
• optical aberrations
• photoreceptor density in the eye
− For two points to be spatially discriminated a complete cycle has to be taken into account.
− This is twice the spatial resolution capability of the human eye.
Two black points
separated by a white
point of equal diameter
(With 20/20 vision, d=20 feet)
𝛼 = 1 arc minute=0.017 degrees
1 Cycle

Human Visual Acuity
20/20 Vision
− The goal of testing eyesight ⇒ Being able to resolve lines in characters that are separated by 1/60 of a degree.
− Since this resolution is typically assessed using an eye chart at a distance of 20 feet (6 m); this level of performance is
defined as 20/20 vision (or 6/6 vision in metric system).
− 20/50 means one can only resolve detail that someone with 20/20 vision could resolve from 50 feet away. It means a person
with 20/50 vision can clearly see something 20 feet away that a person with normal vision (20/20 vision) can see clearly
from a distance of 50 feet.
210
𝟏
𝟔𝟎
° = 𝟏 𝐚𝐫𝐜 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐭𝐞

211
Maximum Resolving Power of Eye
2.5
µm
2.5
µm
4
µm
− To perceive two objects as distinct ⇒ at least one unstimulated cone must lie between two stimulated cones.
− The cone density is greatest in the center of the retina and central visual acuity is highest.
− In the center of the retina the cones are spaced only 2.5 µm apart.
− Cone spacing and physical effects such as diffraction and optical aberrations limit the average of the minimum
threshold resolution, and limit the minimum visual angle to one minute of arc.
− One minute of arc is 1/60 of a degree or approximately 4 µm, which is somewhat more than the width of a cone.
− This corresponds to the maximum resolving power of the retina.

Viewing Angle Limit
Viewing Angle Limit, Minimum Visual Angle, Minimum Angle of Resolution ( )
− Minimum angle in which human eye can distinguish two isolated points ⇒ about 0.5 to 1 minute of arc for healthy eye
⇒ 1 minute of arc (for normal vision and with an appropriate brightness and contrast values)
− Ex: 3m distance
212
𝛼
1mm
3m
(1° = 60')

Viewers tend to perceive images with good resolution as sharp,
detailed, and above all, free of visible pixel structure.
213
Maximum Resolving Power of the Retina and Pixel Pitch
If we stand at 1m from display, pixel
pitch could be as small as 0.3 mm

− The thickness of the scanning beam is equal to the width of each line.
− The distance of the viewer from the screen and the acuity of the human eye have to be considered.
− The optimum viewing distance is found to be about six times the picture height, i.e. D/H = 6.
− At this distance, the line structure should just be no longer visible, i.e. the limit of the resolving power of the eye should be
reached.
For β=9.5273 degrees → D=6H
H
If β = 9.5273 degrees → Minimum Distinguishable Line Numbers=β/α=9.527/ (1/60) =571.64 lines
Ex: TV Lines Number in SDTV
214
D/H = 6 β = 9.5273 degrees
𝛽 = 2 tan−1
(
𝐻/2
𝐷
)

− Fundamental TV Research was done at the Japan Broadcasting Corporation (NHK).
− Showed viewers position themselves so the smallest detail subtends an angle of one arc minute (the limit for normal
vision).
− Closer than this, you can see scan lines/pixels, further away and the picture’s too small.
− Taking this result as a starting point, it was easy to calculate the optimal viewing distance for any scanning standard.
215
Distance is 3 screen heights
HD
16
9
1080
lines
32 º
SD
4
3
Distance is 6 screen heights
13º
4K
Distance is 1.5 screen height
2160
lines
16
9 58 º
Minimum Visual Angle: 𝛼 = 1 arc minute=0.017 degrees
Optimal Viewing Angle and Viewing Distance

Image system Reference
Aspect
ratio
Pixel aspect
ratio
Optimal
Horizontal
Viewing Angle
Optimal Viewing
Distance
720  483 Rec. ITU-R BT.601 4:3 0.88 11° 7 H
640  480 VGA 4:3 1 11° 7 H
720  576 Rec. ITU-R BT.601 4:3 1.07 13° 6 H
1024  768 XGA 4:3 1 17° 4.4 H
1280  720 Rec. ITU-R BT.1543 16:9 1 21° 4.8 H
1400  1050 SXGA+ 4:3 1 23° 3.1 H
1920  1080 Rec. ITU-R BT.709 16:9 1 32° 3.1 H
3840  2160 Rec. ITU-R BT.1769 16:9 1 58° 1.5 H
7680  4320 Rec. ITU-R BT.1769 16:9 1 96° 0.75 H
Proper viewing distance (D)
DHD ≈ 3H D4K ≈ 1.5H
H
Ex: 50 inch TV
DHD=0.625×3.1=1.937 m
D4K=0.625×1.5=0.937 m
D8k=0.625×0.75=0.468 m
D = 0.5H/tan(x)
216
Optimal Viewing Angle and Viewing Distance

Viewing Distance and Perceivable Resolution
217

218
Viewing Distance and Perceivable Resolution

219
Horizontal Fields of View
Horizontal Viewing Filed of the Eye
Visual
Limit
Left
Eye
(94°)
Visual
Limit
Right
Eye
(94°)
(Monocular Vision) (Binocular Vision)
• The central field of vision for most people covers an angle of
between 50° and 60°.
• Filling this angle helps the viewer feel more as though they are
within a scene as opposed to looking at it inside a rectangle.
• In effect
 higher resolution enhances the “sense of detail”
 wider viewing angles enhance the sense of "being there”
⇒ Both are needed to enhance the sense of realism.
90°
R L
Normal Viewing Field

Horizontal Fields of View
220
− In some documents, the central field of view is considers more than 60 degrees.

221
Proper Viewing Angle for each format
Wider Viewing Angle
More Immersive
≃
≃
≃
Sense of Realism with Enhancement of Resolution and Viewing Angle
− Human eyes has total horizontal field vision of 180 degrees but it is majorly perceived and remembered in central field of
vision, 90 degrees (objects are recognized).
− Larger 4K UHD display sets enable 60 degrees of the horizontal field of visions at the correct viewing distance dominating
the central field of vision to provide more realistic, natural and immersive viewing experience compared to 30 degrees in
conventional HD in which perception is largely outside the TV screen.

− Larger viewing angle (larger image or a closer viewing distance) ⇒ more resolvable pixels
− The HD displays are typically out-resolved and can appear pixelated.
− 4K resolution is required to produce maximally sharp and seemingly continuous pixels for a majority of viewers.
222
Viewing Angle and Resolvable Pixels
The Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 1972 demonstrated that 72.8 percent of the civilian non-institutionalized population 4 to 74 years of
age in the United States has distance visual acuity of at least 20/20 in their better eye "with usual correction" (using glasses and other visual aids).

− The diagram depicts a typical large-screen theater with a 70 foot (21.3 meter) screen width.
− Although the IMAX, GSCA and other large-screen specifications recommend a minimum viewing distance of one screen
width (53° viewing angle), the seating rows above extend out to a viewing angle of 45°.
− Even then, note how the majority of viewers can resolve more than 2K resolution from every seat in the theater.
223
Example of Viewing Angle and Resolvable Pixels
A typical large-screen theater with a 70 foot (21.3 meter) screen width.
21.3 meter

Pixel Density
Retina distance: Point at which the human eye cannot see the pixels and varies based on pixels-per-inch.
– At about half the (Full) HD retina distance, Ultra HD focus is on the image not pixels.
– Ultra HD enables up-close viewing without seeing the pixels.
Pixel Per Inch (PPI)=
Width in Pixels ×Height in Pixels
Width in Inches ×Height in Inches
224
HD
UHD (4K)
1 foot=30.48 cm

Horizontal Resolution
225
33.5 cycles
per image width
6.5 cycles
per image width
1.5 cycles
per image width

226
33.5 cycles
per image height
6.5 cycles
per image height
1.5 cycles
per image height
Vertical Resolution

– The horizontal resolution of a video device is its ability to reproduce picture details along the horizontal
direction of the image.
– It is expressed in TV line numbers such as 1000 TV lines.
– The human eye is much more sensitive to luminance information than to color, and accordingly from the
early days of video, emphasis has been put on the improvements of luminance detail.
– The reason that horizontal resolution is more often discussed compared to vertical resolution is because:
227
Horizontal resolution is a parameter that can largely vary from device to device.

– The horizontal resolution is expressed by the resolvable lines within a screen length equivalent to the
screen height, thus
⇒ For a 16:9 screen, only nine-sixteenths of the picture width.
228

Horizontal Resolution Measurement
Method 1:
− It is usually measured by shooting a resolution chart and viewing this on a picture monitor.
– Each black or white line is counted as one line.
229
Resolution Chart
Horizontal resolution is
determined by reading
these calibration

Horizontal Resolution Measurement
Method 2:
− By feeding this signal to a waveform monitor, horizontal resolution can be measured as:
The maximum number of vertical black and white lines where the white lines exceed a video level of 5%.
– Measurement of horizontal resolution must be performed with gamma, aperture, and detail set to ‘on’
and masking set to ‘off’.
230
• In this pictorial example, a square
waveform exists at the scan line
equal to 600 TV Lines on the scale.
• At 700 TV Lines on the scale, the
waveform begins to 'roll' out defining
areas of grey and black; with white
on the outside edges of the
wedge, therefore, the TV Line value
of the camera could be said to be
600 TV Lines.

Vertical Resolution
– Vertical resolution describes a device’s ability to reproduce picture detail in the vertical direction.
– The vertical resolution is determined solely by the scanning system, that is, the number of scanning lines and
whether it operates in interlace or progressive mode.
– However, there are two additional points to take into account:
1- The number of lines actually used for picture content (active lines)
2- The video system ( interlace or progressive) scanning.
– Since only half of the active are scanned in one field, this may sound interesting.
– However, the interlace mechanism makes the human eye perceive them that way.
– In a 625 line system, only 576 lines (active lines) are used for picture content, so resolution approximately 403 lines
(576 x 0.7 = 403).
231
The vertical resolution of all interlace systems is about 70% of their active line.
For progressive systems, the vertical resolution is exactly the same as the number of active lines.

232
Resolution Test chart
The green curve shows the response
when both Detail Level and Vertical
Detail are set to 0, the default value.
Horizontal waveform

Standard Monochrome Signals
233
CRT
t
− First commercial standards were 60 lines.
− Original ‘high definition’ is 405 lines monochrome.
− Television is transmitted and recorded as frames.
• Similar to film.
− Each frame is scanned in the camera or
camcorder.
• This is called a raster scan.
• Raster scan scans line by line from top to bottom.
• Each line is scanned from left to right.
− SD standards were 525 and 625 lines.
• Half the number of lines in each field.
• Signal is “zero” for black.
• Signal increases as the brightness increases.
Raster (Odd lines)

234
t
A line:
Horizontal blanking + Active line
• Horizontal blanking: the horizontal flyback lines
• Active line: active picture (vision line, TV line)
A field (frame):
Horizontal blanking + Active picture + Vertical blanking
• Active picture: active lines within the picture
• Vertical blanking: flyback lines that are not seen
CRT
Raster (Odd lines)
Trace ⇒ Active Line
Retrace ⇒ Horizontal flyback Line, Horizontal blanking (interval)
Start of
a line
End of
a line
Vertical flyback Line
(Vertical blanking interval)
(Field blanking)

235
624
625
21
1
22
23
2
313
335
334
314
Vertical
blanking
interval
lines
before
field
1
Vertical
blanking
interval
lines
before
field
2
623
311
312
(Active
Lines)
(Active
Lines)
21
24
1
22
23
310
311
313
335
336
623
624
625
2
309
312
334
337
622
314
Field 2
Field 1
Field 2 Vertical Blanking Interval
Field 1 Vertical Blanking Interval

21
24
1
22
23
310
311
313
335
336
623
624
625
2
309
312
334
337
622
314
Field 2
Field 1
236
623
623
23
23
310
311
335
336
287.5
lines
287.5
lines
25 lines 25 lines
336 to
623.5
623.5 to 23 23.5 to 310 311 to
335
Active Picture Active Picture
Vertical Blanking Vertical Blanking

621
308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 333 334 335 336 337 338
622 623 624 625 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 21 22 23 24 26
25
9
Field 2 Field 1
Field 1 Field 2
Field blanking
Field blanking
20
Y
video
signal
Line number
Y
video
signal
Line number 332
321
237
0 V
0 V

Synchronization Pulses (Sync Pulses)
238
V-sync pulse
V-sync pulse
H-sync pulse H-sync pulse
− Horizontal sync in the horizontal blanking interval locks the picture horizontally
− Vertical sync in the vertical blanking interval locks the picture vertically
Camera TV

621
308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 333 334 335 336 337 338
622 623 624 625 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 21 22 23 24 26
25
9
Field 2 Field 1
Field 1 Field 2
Field blanking
Field blanking
20
Y
video
signal
Line number
Y
video
signal
Line number 332
321
239
0 V
0 V
Horizontal Synchronizing Pulse
(H-sync pulse)

621
308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 333 334 335 336 337 338
622 623 624 625 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 21 22 23 24 26
25
9
Field 2 Field 1
Field 1 Field 2
Field blanking
Field blanking
20
Y
video
signal
Line number
Y
video
signal
Line number 332
321
240
0 V
0 V
(H-sync pulse)
Vertical Synchronizing Pulse Sequence
(V-sync pulse)

241
Vertical Blanking Interval
Vertical sync pulses
Horizontal synchronizing pulses
V-sync pulse
H-sync pulses H-sync pulses
Pre & post equalizing pulses
(Active
Lines)
(Active
Lines)
21
24
1
22
23
310
311
313
335
336
623
624
625
2
309
312
334
337
622
314
Field 2
Field 1

621
308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 333 334 335 336 337 338
622 623 624 625 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 21 22 23 24 26
25
9
Field 2 Field 1
Field 1 Field 2
Field blanking
Field blanking
20
Y
video
signal
Line number
Y
video
signal
Line number 332
321
242
0 V
0 V
35 𝜇𝑠
25 𝜇𝑠
35 𝜇𝑠
25 𝜇𝑠
Note: (In NTSC switching window is on line 10 and 273)
Switching Window
Switching Window
Switching Window

The basic television signal
243
H-sync pulse
Example

The basic television signal
Short white areas of the
line for the sails produce
sharp white spikes in the
signal.
Trees and bushes with
light and dark areas
produce an undulating
signal.
The sky is bright and
produces a high signal
almost as high as the white
sails.
Shadows in the
trees produce a
low signal.
Very small bright area between the
trees produces a very sharp spike in
the signal
244
H-sync pulse
Example
This part of the line
with black shadows
produces a low signal.

Composite Video Signal (Monochrome)
Front Porch
Active or Visible Line Interval (Vision)
12 µs 52 µs
245
4.7 µs
BackPorch
Horizontal
Blanking
Interval
‫افقی‬ ‫محو‬ ‫فاصله‬
Horizontal Blanking Interval
‫افقی‬ ‫همزمانی‬ ‫پالس‬
(H-sync pulse)
‫پالس‬ ‫رشته‬
‫عمودی‬ ‫همزمانی‬
Vertical Synchronizing pulse Sequence
(V-sync pulse)
Composite Video Signal (CVS)
Video signal + Blanking + Sync pulse
700 mV
H-sync
300 mV
0 mV

IRE (Institute of Radio Engineers)
− The Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE) was a professional organization which existed from 1912 until 1962.
− On January 1, 1963 it merged with the American Institute of Electrical Engineers to form the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
 Since the sync signal is exactly 40 IRE
 The active video range is exactly 100 IRE. (from black level to white)
246
Front Porch
Active or Visible Line Interval
(Vision)
12 µs 52 µs
4.7 µs
BackPorch
Horizontal
Blanking
Interval
700 mV
H-sync
-300 mV
0 mV
One IRE unit = 7.14 mV
100 IRE
40 IRE

VBS/BS Signal
– The VBS (Video Burst Sync) signal refers to a composite video signal in which the active video area
contains actual picture content or color bars .
– The BS (Burst Sync) signal does not contain picture content and the active video area is kept at setup
level.
247

Contrast vs. Brightness
DC level
DC level
248
H-Sync
H-Sync
Vision or Active Line
Vision or Active Line
t
t
V
V
H-Sync Vision or Active Line
V
Adding a constant DC Voltage
Amplification
Constant Voltage

249
1. Electron Guns
2. Electron Beams
3. Focusing Coils
4. Deflection Coils
5. Anode Connection
6. Shadow Mask
7. Phosphor layer
8. Close-up of the phosphor coated inner
side of the electron
Deflection System

250
H-sync
V-sync
H-sync pulse
V-sync pulse
Deflection System
Vertical Scanning
Synchronization System
Horizontal Scanning
Synchronization System
Video
(Picture Content) 15625 Hz
50 Hz

21
24
Digital SDTV
1
22
23
310
311
313
335
336
623
624
625
2
309
312
334
337
622
314
Field 2
Field 1
251
SDI Field Line 525 Line 625 Line
Active Video 1 20-236 23-310
Field Blanking 1 4-19, 264-265 1-22, 311-312
Active Video 2 283-526 336-623
Field Blanking 2 1-3, 266-282 624-625, 313-335

End of Active Video (EAV) & Start of Active Video (SAV) in Digital SDTV
252
Header : 3FFh, 000h, 000h
EAV SAV
Start of new line
End of previous line
621 622 623 624 625 1 2 3
Field 2 Field 1
r
Start of new line
End of previous line

End of Active Video (EAV) & Start of Active Video (SAV)
253
NTSC Waveform
Black Level (Set up)
7.5 IRE
Color Bust Location
(9 Cycles)
Horizontal Timing
Reference in NTSC.
Mid point of leading
edge of H sync
SDI
Line
Start
NTSC
Line
Start
SDI Waveform
Black Level (Set up)
040 Hex
SDI Data
Horizontal Timing
Reference in SDI
Negative pulse caused by failing
to Black Clip the luminance
H Ancillary period.
Embedded audio
location.
(none shown)
EAV SAV

Timing Reference Signal (TRS) Codes in Digital SDTV
254
E
A
V
S
A
V
− The “xyz” word is a 10-bit word with the two least significant bits set to zero
to survive an 8-bit signal path. Contained within the standard definition
“xyz” word are functions F, V, and H, which have the following values:
• Bit 8 – (F-bit): 0 for field one and 1 for field two
• Bit 7 – (V-bit): 1 in vertical blanking interval; 0 during active video lines
• Bit 6 – (H-bit): 1 indicates the EAV sequence; 0 indicates the SAV sequence

VANC
HANC
Ancillary (ANC) Data Space in Digital SDTV
255

VANC VANC
HANC
HANC
Ancillary (ANC) Data Space in Digital SDTV
256

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