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Medicinal chemistry involves the design and synthesis of pharmaceutical agents to benefit humanity. It includes synthesis, structure-activity relationship studies, receptor interactions, and analysis of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. The field has its roots in the isolation of alkaloids like morphine in the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, semi-synthetic and synthetic derivatives of plant-derived compounds were developed. Modern medicinal chemistry emerged in the late 19th/early 20th century with advances like the receptor theory and development of antibiotics and sulfonamides. The 1940s-1960s were a "golden era" with the invention of many modern drug classes such as corticosteroids, antipsychotics
UNIT III_cholinergic neurotransmitter agonistSONALI PAWAR
The document discusses cholinergic neurotransmitters and parasympathomimetic agents. It begins by providing an overview of acetylcholine as the principal neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system. It then discusses the classification of parasympathomimetic agents into direct-acting agents like acetylcholine and indirect-acting agents like cholinesterase inhibitors. The document also covers the structure and mechanisms of several parasympathomimetic drugs including carbachol, bethanechol, methacholine, pilocarpine, physostigmine, and neostigmine. It concludes by describing the cholinergic receptors, muscarinic and nicotinic, and their distributions in the body.
Parasympathomimetics medicinal chemistry b. pharm. AZCPh
This document contains numbers from 2 to 3 repeatedly listed for each month from 2017. It seems to suggest data was collected for some metric each month throughout the year 2017. However, without any additional context it is difficult to determine what specifically the numbers represent.
PHARMACOLOGY OF DRUGS ACTING ON PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.pptxRupaSingh83
This document discusses the pharmacology of drugs acting on the peripheral nervous system. It begins by describing the classification of the nervous system into the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is further divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The autonomic nervous system is then subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The document goes on to explain the differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems in terms of their functions, neurotransmitters, and effects on various organs. It also discusses neurotransmission and the types and roles of neurotransmitters involved in the peripheral nervous system such as acetylcholine.
Aim To Perform Assay of Ibuprofen Tablet.pptxPratikTerse3
This document outlines a procedure to perform an assay of ibuprofen tablets. Ibuprofen is a weakly acidic non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug that can be estimated through alkalimetry. The procedure involves titrating an alcoholic solution of powdered ibuprofen tablets against a standard sodium hydroxide solution using a phenolphthalein indicator. The amount of sodium hydroxide required is used to calculate the purity percentage of ibuprofen in the sample based on the molecular weight of ibuprofen and weight of sample used.
Sympatholytic drugs (Adrenergic blockers) bind to the adrenergic receptors and prevent the action of adrenergic drugs.
These are drugs which block the actions of sympathetic division or catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline).
They are competitive antagonists at both α and β adrenergic receptors.
Medicinal chemistry involves the design and synthesis of pharmaceutical agents to benefit humanity. It includes synthesis, structure-activity relationship studies, receptor interactions, and analysis of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. The field has its roots in the isolation of alkaloids like morphine in the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, semi-synthetic and synthetic derivatives of plant-derived compounds were developed. Modern medicinal chemistry emerged in the late 19th/early 20th century with advances like the receptor theory and development of antibiotics and sulfonamides. The 1940s-1960s were a "golden era" with the invention of many modern drug classes such as corticosteroids, antipsychotics
UNIT III_cholinergic neurotransmitter agonistSONALI PAWAR
The document discusses cholinergic neurotransmitters and parasympathomimetic agents. It begins by providing an overview of acetylcholine as the principal neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system. It then discusses the classification of parasympathomimetic agents into direct-acting agents like acetylcholine and indirect-acting agents like cholinesterase inhibitors. The document also covers the structure and mechanisms of several parasympathomimetic drugs including carbachol, bethanechol, methacholine, pilocarpine, physostigmine, and neostigmine. It concludes by describing the cholinergic receptors, muscarinic and nicotinic, and their distributions in the body.
Parasympathomimetics medicinal chemistry b. pharm. AZCPh
This document contains numbers from 2 to 3 repeatedly listed for each month from 2017. It seems to suggest data was collected for some metric each month throughout the year 2017. However, without any additional context it is difficult to determine what specifically the numbers represent.
PHARMACOLOGY OF DRUGS ACTING ON PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.pptxRupaSingh83
This document discusses the pharmacology of drugs acting on the peripheral nervous system. It begins by describing the classification of the nervous system into the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is further divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The autonomic nervous system is then subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The document goes on to explain the differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems in terms of their functions, neurotransmitters, and effects on various organs. It also discusses neurotransmission and the types and roles of neurotransmitters involved in the peripheral nervous system such as acetylcholine.
Aim To Perform Assay of Ibuprofen Tablet.pptxPratikTerse3
This document outlines a procedure to perform an assay of ibuprofen tablets. Ibuprofen is a weakly acidic non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug that can be estimated through alkalimetry. The procedure involves titrating an alcoholic solution of powdered ibuprofen tablets against a standard sodium hydroxide solution using a phenolphthalein indicator. The amount of sodium hydroxide required is used to calculate the purity percentage of ibuprofen in the sample based on the molecular weight of ibuprofen and weight of sample used.
Sympatholytic drugs (Adrenergic blockers) bind to the adrenergic receptors and prevent the action of adrenergic drugs.
These are drugs which block the actions of sympathetic division or catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline).
They are competitive antagonists at both α and β adrenergic receptors.
PARASYMPATHOMIMETIC DRUGS Classification and SAR.pptxJasmine Chaudhary
This document discusses parasympathomimetic drugs, also known as cholinergic drugs, which mimic the action of acetylcholine in the body. It describes two types of cholinergic drugs: direct-acting drugs that stimulate cholinergic receptors, and indirect-acting drugs that inhibit the acetylcholinesterase enzyme and increase acetylcholine levels. The document provides details on the classification, structure-activity relationships, mechanisms of action, effects, and examples of both types of cholinergic drugs.
The document discusses the parasympathetic nervous system and parasympathomimetic drugs. It provides details on:
- The parasympathetic nervous system originates from the brainstem and sacral region and uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.
- Parasympathomimetic drugs like acetylcholine, muscarine, and anticholinesterases act to stimulate parasympathetic responses. Direct acting drugs activate cholinergic receptors while indirect drugs inhibit acetylcholinesterase.
- These drugs have therapeutic uses for conditions like glaucoma, urinary retention, and myasthenia gravis. Combinations of drugs are sometimes used to achieve optimal effects while minimizing side effects.
This document summarizes cholinergic antagonists, which are drugs that block the effects of acetylcholine in the muscarinic receptor. It discusses their structure-activity relationships, medical uses in conditions like ulcers, overactive bladder, and organophosphate poisoning. Specific antagonists are described like atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine, ipratropium, tiotropium, benztropine, biperiden, tropicamide, and others. Their mechanisms of action, pharmacological effects, and clinical applications are concisely outlined.
This document provides information about sympathomimetic agents. It discusses direct-acting, indirect-acting, and mixed-acting agents and how they work. Specific agents are described, including their properties, mechanisms of action, uses, and storage requirements. Sympathomimetic drugs act on adrenergic receptors to increase heart rate and blood pressure. Structure-activity relationships are also covered, explaining how chemical modifications impact receptor selectivity and duration of action.
SAR OF BARBITURATES & BENZODIAZEPINES.docxHRUTUJA WAGH
1. Barbiturates require an acidity value within a certain range and optimal lipid solubility to cross the blood brain barrier and exert central nervous system effects. Their activity depends on acidity and having substituents at the C-5 position with a total of 6-10 carbon atoms.
2. Benzodiazepines require electron attracting substituents, like chlorine or fluorine, at the C-7 position for activity. Substitutions at C-6, C-8, and C-9 decrease activity, while a phenyl or pyridyl group at C-5 and electron attracting groups at C-2' or C-6' increase activity. Their pot
Micromeritics involves the study of small particles between 1-100 microns in size. It characterizes particles based on their size, shape, surface area, density, and other properties. Particle size is important for drug release, absorption, stability of formulations, and ensuring uniform drug doses. Methods to determine particle size include optical microscopy, sieving, sedimentation, and conductivity. No single method can directly measure all particle dimensions, so results may vary between methods depending on the intended application.
Part II: UNIT cholinergic neurotransmitter - Antagonist DrugsSONALI PAWAR
This document discusses cholinergic neurotransmitters and cholinergic blocking agents. It begins by describing various cholinergic blocking agents including solanaceous alkaloids like atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine as well as synthetic agents like tropicamide, cyclopentolate, dicyclomine, glycopyrrolate, and propantheline. It then discusses the mechanisms of action and medical uses of these drugs, which work by antagonizing acetylcholine at nicotinic or muscarinic receptors. The document also covers structural activity relationships of parasympatholytic agents and their use in treating conditions like smooth muscle spasms, ulcers, overactive bladder, and Parkinson
The document summarizes the pharmacology of the peripheral nervous system, focusing on the autonomic nervous system. It describes the organization and functions of the autonomic nervous system, including its sensory, central, and efferent components. Specifically, it discusses the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions in detail, comparing their locations, neurotransmitters, pathways, and physiological effects. The enteric nervous system is also briefly described.
This document discusses the classification, structure-activity relationships, and mechanisms of action of sympathomimetic and adrenergic drugs. It categorizes these drugs based on their chemical nature, mode of action, receptor selectivity, and therapeutic effects. Key points include:
1) Sympathomimetics are classified as catecholamines which contain a catechol nucleus, or non-catecholamines which do not.
2) They can act directly on receptors, indirectly by releasing norepinephrine, or by both mechanisms.
3) Drugs show selectivity for alpha-1, alpha-2, beta-1, or beta-2 adrenergic receptors.
4) Ther
This course provides an overview of the stages involved in the Phase I and Phase II metabolism of steroids in the Human body. Find out about the enzymes involved and how they modify the steroidal backbone.
Created by James Campbell and David Takapu (Undergraduates)
Edited by Margaret Hilton
Honors Organic Chemistry
Chem 2321 (Sigman), 2013, University of Utah
Neurohumoral transmission in CNS-
The term neurohumoral transmission designates the transfer of a nerve impulse from a presynaptic to a postsynaptic neuron by means of a humoral agent e.g. a biogenic amine, an amino acid or a peptide.
Cholinergic blocking agents by Aryan Patel.pptxARYAN PATEL
This document discusses cholinergic blocking agents, also known as anticholinergic or parasympatholytic drugs. It describes how these drugs block the actions of acetylcholine in the parasympathetic nervous system, reducing various effects mediated by muscarinic acetylcholine receptors like salivation, lacrimation, urinary incontinence, diarrhea, gastrointestinal cramps and emesis. Some examples of cholinergic blocking agents mentioned are atropine, propantheline, and biperiden. The document also discusses the structure-activity relationships and mechanisms of various anticholinergic drugs.
Unit i.Optical Isomerism as per PCI syllabus of POC-III Ganesh Mote
Unit I optical isomerism which is included in PCI syllabus of Sem IV of POC-III subject
This Unit Includes all points of Unit I such as nomenclature, R& S, d&l, D& L isomerism, Meso compounds, diastereomers, chirality, resolution of racemic mixture, enantiomers, Asymmetric synthesis,
Unit 3 Drugs Affecting PNS (As per PCI syllabus)Mirza Anwar Baig
This document provides an overview of a lecture on drugs acting on the autonomic nervous system. It discusses the autonomic neurotransmission and classification of drugs into parasympathomimetics, parasympatholytics, sympathomimetics, and sympatholytics. Specific drugs discussed in detail include direct-acting cholinergic agonists like acetylcholine and indirect-acting cholinergic agonists like anticholinesterase agents. Anticholinergic drugs like atropine are also summarized in terms of their mechanisms and therapeutic uses.
This seminar discusses the structure-activity relationship of H1-receptor antagonists. It describes the key structural requirements for antihistamine activity, including a diaryl substitution, connecting group X, alkyl chain, and tertiary amine terminal nitrogen group. The H1-antihistamines are classified based on their core structures into amino alkyl ethers, ethylenediamine derivatives, propylamine derivatives, phenothiazines, and piperazines. Understanding the SAR of substitutions and connections between groups can help optimize antihistamine potency and pharmacological effects.
R. VIJAYAKUMAR., M Pharm,
Research Scholar
department of Pharmaceutical Technology.
Anna university- BIT
Tiruchirappalli
III Semester.
UNIT-IV / Micromeritics
This document summarizes parasympathomimetics (cholinergic agonists). It discusses how the parasympathetic nervous system uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter and how cholinergic agonists mimic acetylcholine's actions. It classifies cholinergic agonists into direct-acting and indirect-acting types. Direct agonists bind receptors, while indirect agonists inhibit acetylcholinesterase to increase acetylcholine levels. Examples of both types are provided along with their structures, mechanisms of action, and uses. The document also covers acetylcholine synthesis and catabolism as well as structure-activity relationships of parasympathomimetics.
This document discusses CNS stimulants and nootropics, or cognition enhancers. It describes how CNS stimulants produce generalized stimulation of the central nervous system and lists various convulsants, analeptics, and psychostimulants. Nootropics are meant to enhance cerebral functions like memory and are used to treat conditions like Alzheimer's disease, dementia, and learning defects. Common nootropics discussed include cholinergic activators like donepezil and rivastigmine, the NMDA antagonist memantine, and various other drugs like piracetam. Rivastigmine inhibits acetylcholinesterase to increase cholinergic transmission in the brain. Memantine
1 UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY SONALI PAWAR
Medicinal chemistry is a multidisciplinary field that combines organic chemistry, biochemistry, pharmacology and other sciences to study the design, synthesis and actions of pharmaceutical drugs. The document provides a brief history of medicinal chemistry, noting early examples of medicinal substances used in ancient civilizations. It then discusses several important physicochemical properties that influence a drug's biological effects, including solubility, partition coefficient, hydrogen bonding, ionization and others. The relationships between these properties and drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion are also summarized.
PARASYMPATHOMIMETIC DRUGS Classification and SAR.pptxJasmine Chaudhary
This document discusses parasympathomimetic drugs, also known as cholinergic drugs, which mimic the action of acetylcholine in the body. It describes two types of cholinergic drugs: direct-acting drugs that stimulate cholinergic receptors, and indirect-acting drugs that inhibit the acetylcholinesterase enzyme and increase acetylcholine levels. The document provides details on the classification, structure-activity relationships, mechanisms of action, effects, and examples of both types of cholinergic drugs.
The document discusses the parasympathetic nervous system and parasympathomimetic drugs. It provides details on:
- The parasympathetic nervous system originates from the brainstem and sacral region and uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.
- Parasympathomimetic drugs like acetylcholine, muscarine, and anticholinesterases act to stimulate parasympathetic responses. Direct acting drugs activate cholinergic receptors while indirect drugs inhibit acetylcholinesterase.
- These drugs have therapeutic uses for conditions like glaucoma, urinary retention, and myasthenia gravis. Combinations of drugs are sometimes used to achieve optimal effects while minimizing side effects.
This document summarizes cholinergic antagonists, which are drugs that block the effects of acetylcholine in the muscarinic receptor. It discusses their structure-activity relationships, medical uses in conditions like ulcers, overactive bladder, and organophosphate poisoning. Specific antagonists are described like atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine, ipratropium, tiotropium, benztropine, biperiden, tropicamide, and others. Their mechanisms of action, pharmacological effects, and clinical applications are concisely outlined.
This document provides information about sympathomimetic agents. It discusses direct-acting, indirect-acting, and mixed-acting agents and how they work. Specific agents are described, including their properties, mechanisms of action, uses, and storage requirements. Sympathomimetic drugs act on adrenergic receptors to increase heart rate and blood pressure. Structure-activity relationships are also covered, explaining how chemical modifications impact receptor selectivity and duration of action.
SAR OF BARBITURATES & BENZODIAZEPINES.docxHRUTUJA WAGH
1. Barbiturates require an acidity value within a certain range and optimal lipid solubility to cross the blood brain barrier and exert central nervous system effects. Their activity depends on acidity and having substituents at the C-5 position with a total of 6-10 carbon atoms.
2. Benzodiazepines require electron attracting substituents, like chlorine or fluorine, at the C-7 position for activity. Substitutions at C-6, C-8, and C-9 decrease activity, while a phenyl or pyridyl group at C-5 and electron attracting groups at C-2' or C-6' increase activity. Their pot
Micromeritics involves the study of small particles between 1-100 microns in size. It characterizes particles based on their size, shape, surface area, density, and other properties. Particle size is important for drug release, absorption, stability of formulations, and ensuring uniform drug doses. Methods to determine particle size include optical microscopy, sieving, sedimentation, and conductivity. No single method can directly measure all particle dimensions, so results may vary between methods depending on the intended application.
Part II: UNIT cholinergic neurotransmitter - Antagonist DrugsSONALI PAWAR
This document discusses cholinergic neurotransmitters and cholinergic blocking agents. It begins by describing various cholinergic blocking agents including solanaceous alkaloids like atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine as well as synthetic agents like tropicamide, cyclopentolate, dicyclomine, glycopyrrolate, and propantheline. It then discusses the mechanisms of action and medical uses of these drugs, which work by antagonizing acetylcholine at nicotinic or muscarinic receptors. The document also covers structural activity relationships of parasympatholytic agents and their use in treating conditions like smooth muscle spasms, ulcers, overactive bladder, and Parkinson
The document summarizes the pharmacology of the peripheral nervous system, focusing on the autonomic nervous system. It describes the organization and functions of the autonomic nervous system, including its sensory, central, and efferent components. Specifically, it discusses the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions in detail, comparing their locations, neurotransmitters, pathways, and physiological effects. The enteric nervous system is also briefly described.
This document discusses the classification, structure-activity relationships, and mechanisms of action of sympathomimetic and adrenergic drugs. It categorizes these drugs based on their chemical nature, mode of action, receptor selectivity, and therapeutic effects. Key points include:
1) Sympathomimetics are classified as catecholamines which contain a catechol nucleus, or non-catecholamines which do not.
2) They can act directly on receptors, indirectly by releasing norepinephrine, or by both mechanisms.
3) Drugs show selectivity for alpha-1, alpha-2, beta-1, or beta-2 adrenergic receptors.
4) Ther
This course provides an overview of the stages involved in the Phase I and Phase II metabolism of steroids in the Human body. Find out about the enzymes involved and how they modify the steroidal backbone.
Created by James Campbell and David Takapu (Undergraduates)
Edited by Margaret Hilton
Honors Organic Chemistry
Chem 2321 (Sigman), 2013, University of Utah
Neurohumoral transmission in CNS-
The term neurohumoral transmission designates the transfer of a nerve impulse from a presynaptic to a postsynaptic neuron by means of a humoral agent e.g. a biogenic amine, an amino acid or a peptide.
Cholinergic blocking agents by Aryan Patel.pptxARYAN PATEL
This document discusses cholinergic blocking agents, also known as anticholinergic or parasympatholytic drugs. It describes how these drugs block the actions of acetylcholine in the parasympathetic nervous system, reducing various effects mediated by muscarinic acetylcholine receptors like salivation, lacrimation, urinary incontinence, diarrhea, gastrointestinal cramps and emesis. Some examples of cholinergic blocking agents mentioned are atropine, propantheline, and biperiden. The document also discusses the structure-activity relationships and mechanisms of various anticholinergic drugs.
Unit i.Optical Isomerism as per PCI syllabus of POC-III Ganesh Mote
Unit I optical isomerism which is included in PCI syllabus of Sem IV of POC-III subject
This Unit Includes all points of Unit I such as nomenclature, R& S, d&l, D& L isomerism, Meso compounds, diastereomers, chirality, resolution of racemic mixture, enantiomers, Asymmetric synthesis,
Unit 3 Drugs Affecting PNS (As per PCI syllabus)Mirza Anwar Baig
This document provides an overview of a lecture on drugs acting on the autonomic nervous system. It discusses the autonomic neurotransmission and classification of drugs into parasympathomimetics, parasympatholytics, sympathomimetics, and sympatholytics. Specific drugs discussed in detail include direct-acting cholinergic agonists like acetylcholine and indirect-acting cholinergic agonists like anticholinesterase agents. Anticholinergic drugs like atropine are also summarized in terms of their mechanisms and therapeutic uses.
This seminar discusses the structure-activity relationship of H1-receptor antagonists. It describes the key structural requirements for antihistamine activity, including a diaryl substitution, connecting group X, alkyl chain, and tertiary amine terminal nitrogen group. The H1-antihistamines are classified based on their core structures into amino alkyl ethers, ethylenediamine derivatives, propylamine derivatives, phenothiazines, and piperazines. Understanding the SAR of substitutions and connections between groups can help optimize antihistamine potency and pharmacological effects.
R. VIJAYAKUMAR., M Pharm,
Research Scholar
department of Pharmaceutical Technology.
Anna university- BIT
Tiruchirappalli
III Semester.
UNIT-IV / Micromeritics
This document summarizes parasympathomimetics (cholinergic agonists). It discusses how the parasympathetic nervous system uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter and how cholinergic agonists mimic acetylcholine's actions. It classifies cholinergic agonists into direct-acting and indirect-acting types. Direct agonists bind receptors, while indirect agonists inhibit acetylcholinesterase to increase acetylcholine levels. Examples of both types are provided along with their structures, mechanisms of action, and uses. The document also covers acetylcholine synthesis and catabolism as well as structure-activity relationships of parasympathomimetics.
This document discusses CNS stimulants and nootropics, or cognition enhancers. It describes how CNS stimulants produce generalized stimulation of the central nervous system and lists various convulsants, analeptics, and psychostimulants. Nootropics are meant to enhance cerebral functions like memory and are used to treat conditions like Alzheimer's disease, dementia, and learning defects. Common nootropics discussed include cholinergic activators like donepezil and rivastigmine, the NMDA antagonist memantine, and various other drugs like piracetam. Rivastigmine inhibits acetylcholinesterase to increase cholinergic transmission in the brain. Memantine
1 UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY SONALI PAWAR
Medicinal chemistry is a multidisciplinary field that combines organic chemistry, biochemistry, pharmacology and other sciences to study the design, synthesis and actions of pharmaceutical drugs. The document provides a brief history of medicinal chemistry, noting early examples of medicinal substances used in ancient civilizations. It then discusses several important physicochemical properties that influence a drug's biological effects, including solubility, partition coefficient, hydrogen bonding, ionization and others. The relationships between these properties and drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion are also summarized.
This document discusses various filtration techniques used in pharmaceutical manufacturing. It begins by describing the mechanisms of filtration including straining and impingement. It then discusses various filter media and factors that influence the rate of filtration such as surface area, pressure, viscosity. Finally, it summarizes different types of filters including filter press, leaf filter, metafilter, cartridge filter, rotary drum filter, and membrane filter. It provides details on the construction and working of each type of filter.
This document discusses molecular mechanics and molecular dynamics simulations. It explains that molecular mechanics uses Newtonian mechanics to calculate energies and forces between atoms to model molecular motion. The potential energy is calculated based on contributions from bond lengths, bond angles, torsion angles, van der Waals interactions, and electrostatic interactions. Force fields are used to describe how potential energy depends on parameters. Energy minimization and molecular dynamics simulations are used to find low energy conformations and model molecular motion by overcoming energy barriers. Examples provided include simulations of benzene rings and modeling ATP and water in an enzyme active site.
The document summarizes various drugs used for their anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties. It discusses how immunosuppressants like cyclosporine, tacrolimus, and sirolimus inhibit T-cell activation and proliferation to prevent transplant rejection and treat autoimmune disorders. Newer biologic drugs targeting TNF are also mentioned. For gout, acute attacks are treated with anti-inflammatory drugs while prevention involves colchicine and allopurinol to decrease uric acid production or probenecid to increase uric acid excretion.
The document discusses several topics related to human anatomy and physiology. It defines homeostasis as any self-regulating process that maintains stability and optimal conditions for survival. It describes the supine position as lying horizontally face up and provides examples of its uses in surgery. It briefly mentions types of cells, paracrine signaling between nearby cells, synaptic connections between neurons, and secretions from skin glands.
Vitamins and vitamin-like substances play important roles in many metabolic pathways and processes in the body. Key vitamins include: A (retinol), B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), B5 (pantothenic acid), B6 (pyridoxine), B12 (cobalamin), and C (ascorbic acid). These vitamins are involved in pathways like phototransduction, carbohydrate metabolism, redox reactions, amino acid metabolism, and one-carbon metabolism. Deficiencies can cause diseases like night blindness, beriberi, and anemia. Vitamin-like substances such as choline, carnitine
Radioimmunoassay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays are immunoassays that use the antigen-antibody reaction to detect and quantify substances like hormones, vitamins, and drugs. Radioimmunoassays use radiolabeled antigens or antibodies while ELISAs use enzyme-labeled molecules, avoiding radiation hazards. Both techniques require preparing antigens and antibodies, developing standardized assay procedures, and measuring the amount of bound versus unbound reagents to quantify the target substance in samples. Immunoassays are highly specific and sensitive methods used to detect substances important for diagnosing disease and monitoring drug and hormone levels in the body.
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