b.pharm first sem two mark question and answers

1. 1.HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis, any self-regulating process by which biological systems tend to maintain stability
while adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival. homeostasis is the state of steady
internal, physical, and chemical conditions maintained by living systems. This is the condition of
optimal functioning for the organism and includes many variables, such as body temperature and
fluid balance, being kept within certain pre-set limits.
2.SUPINE POSITION
The supine position means lying horizontally with the face and torso facing up, as opposed to the
prone position, which is face down. When used in surgical procedures, it grants access to the
peritoneal, thoracic and pericardial regions; as well as the head, neck and extremities. In supine
position, the patient is face up with their head resting on a pad positioner or pillow and their neck
in a neutral position.

2. 3.TYPES OF CELLS
4.PARACRINE
Paracrine signaling is a form of cell signaling, a type of cellular communication in which a cell
produces a signal to induce changes in nearby cells, altering the behaviour of those cells. ... Cells
that produce paracrine factors secrete them into the immediate extracellular environment.

3. 5.SYNAPTIC
Synapse, also called neuronal junction, the site of transmission of electric nerve impulses between
two nerve cells (neurons) or between a neuron and a gland or muscle cell (effector).
A synaptic connection between a neuron and a muscle cell is called a neuromuscular junction.
6.SECRETION OF SKIN
Skin secretions originate from glands that in dermal layer of the epidermis. Sweat, a physiological
aid to body temperature regulation, is secreted by eccrine glands. Sebaceous
glands secrete the skin lubricant sebum. Sebum is secreted onto the hair shaft and it prevents the
hair from splitting.

4. 7.BALL AND SOCKET JOINTS
Ball-and-socket joint, also called spheroidal joint, in vertebrate anatomy, a joint in which the
rounded surface of a bone moves within a depression on another bone, allowing greater freedom
of movement than any other kind of joint. Ball and socket joints are a type of synovial joint where
the spheroid articular surface of one bone sits within a cup-like depression of another bone.
8.PIVOT JOINTS
Pivot joints, also known as rotary joints, are a type of synovial joint that permit axial rotation.
The moving bone rotates within a ring formed by the concave surface of a second bone and an
adjoining ligament.

5. 9.SUTURES OF THE SKULL
The coronal suture is a dense, fibrous connective tissue joint that separates the two parietal bones
from the frontal bone of the skull. The dense fibrous tissue that connects the sutures is made
mostly out of collagen. These joints are fixed, immovable, and they have no cavity. They are also
referred to as the synarthroses. The sagittal suture, also known as the interparietal suture and the
sutura interparietalis, is a dense, fibrous connective tissue joint between the two parietal bones of
the skull.
10.BONES PRESENT IN THE EAR
The middle ear contains three tiny bones: Hammer (malleus) — attached to the eardrum. Anvil
(incus) — in the middle of the chain of bones. Stirrup (stapes) — attached to the membrane-
covered opening that connects the middle ear with the inner ear (oval window)

6. 11.FACE BONES
 Ethmoid – Midline cranial bone.
 Frontal – Bone that forms the forehead.
 Lacrimal – Paired bones that form the wall of the orbit.
 Mandible – Bone that forms the lower jaw.
 Maxilla – Bone that forms the upper jaw.
 Nasal – Paired bones that form the bridge of the nose.
 Occipital – Bone that forms the posterior portion of the head.
 Parietal – Paired bones at the top of the skull. They articulate with each other and other bones in
the skull.
 Sphenoid – Midline bone that has several processes associated with it.
 Temporal – Paired bones that form the lateral walls of the skull and articulate with the mandible
at the temporomandibular joint.
 Zygomatic – Paired facial bones that form the cheeks.

7. 12.ACTION POTENIAL
An action potential is a rapid rise and subsequent fall in voltage or membrane potential across a
cellular membrane with a characteristic pattern. ... Examples of cells that signal via action
potentials are neurons and muscle cells. Stimulus starts the rapid change in voltage or action
potential.
13.DEFINE BLOOD AND COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
The familiar red fluid in the body that contains white and red blood cells, platelets, proteins, and
other elements . Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary
substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away
from those same cells.
It has four main components: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Blood has
many different functions, including: transporting oxygen and nutrients to the lungs and tissues.
forming blood clots to prevent excess blood loss.

8. 14.Rh FACTORS
The Rh factor is a protein that can be found on the surface of red blood cells. If your blood cells
have this protein, you are Rh positive. If your blood cells do not have this protein, you are Rh
negative. During pregnancy, problems can occur if you are Rh negative and your fetus is Rh
positive.
15.THROMBOCYTOPENIA
People with thrombocytopenia have low platelet levels. Platelets aid blood clotting (stopping
bleeding). When platelet levels are low, you may bruise and bleed excessively. Certain cancers,
cancer treatments, medications and autoimmune diseases can cause the condition. Low platelet
level can have causes that aren't due to underlying disease. Examples include pregnancy, altitude
or medication side effects.

9. 16.POLYCYTHEMIA
Polycythemia refers to an increase in the number of red blood cells in the body. The extra cells
cause the blood to be thicker, and this, in turn, increases the risk of other health issues, such as
blood clots. Polycythemia can have different causes, each of which has its own treatment options.
17.GOUT
A form of arthritis characterised by severe pain, redness and tenderness in joints. Pain and
inflammation occur when too much uric acid crystallises and deposits in the joints. Symptoms of
gout include severe pain, redness and swelling in joints, often the big toe. Attacks can come
suddenly, often at night.

10. 18.COMPOSITION OF LYMPH
Lymph contains a variety of substances, including proteins, salts, glucose, fats, water, and white
blood cells. Unlike your blood, lymph does not normally contain any red blood cells.
The composition of lymph varies a great deal, depending on where in your body it originated.
19.STAGES OF RBC
Erythropoiesis occurs in three stages. Mesoblastic Stage – during the first 2 months of intrauterine
life, the RBCs are produced from mesenchyme of yolk sac. Hepatic Stage – from third month of
intra-uterine life, liver is the main organ that produces RBCs.

11. 20.FATE OF RBC

12. 21.ERYTHROPOIESIS
Erythropoiesis is the process which produces red blood cells, which is the development from
erythropoietic stem cell to mature red blood cell. It is stimulated by decreased O₂ in circulation,
which is detected by the kidneys, which then secrete the hormone erythropoietin.
22.FACTORS OF COAGULATION

13. 23.CHRISTMAS FACTORS
The clotting factor IX is also known as Christmas factor. The name is derived from the boy,
Stephen Christmas. He was lacking this factor and the deficiency led him to acquire hemophilia.
The Christmas factor is produced from the liver.
24.LEUKEMIA
Leukemia is cancer of the body's blood-forming tissues, including the bone marrow and the
lymphatic system. Many types of leukemia exist. Some forms of leukemia are more common in
children. Other forms of leukemia occur mostly in adults. Leukemia usually involves the white
blood cells

14. 25.VITAMIN K DEFICIENCY
Vitamin K refers to a group of fat-soluble compounds involved in coagulation, bone development,
and cardiovascular health. Vitamin K deficiency can contribute to significant bleeding, poor bone
development, osteoporosis, and increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
26.VON WILLE BRAND’S DISEASE
A bleeding disorder caused by low levels of clotting protein in the blood. Von Willebrand disease
is often inherited, but in rare cases, it may develop later in life. Symptoms may include recurrent
and prolonged nosebleeds, bleeding from the gums, increased menstrual flow and excessive
bleeding from a cut. Treatment focuses on stopping or preventing bleeding episodes, typically by
using medication.
27.HODGKINS DISEASE
Cancer of part of the immune system called the lymphatic system. As the cancer progresses, it
limits the body's ability to fight infection. Lymph nodes in the neck, armpits or groin may swell.
Fatigue, fever and chills are some symptoms. Treatments include chemotherapy, radiation and in
rare cases, stem-cell transplant.

15. 28.COMPOSITION OF BILE JUICE
Bile consists of ~95% water in which are dissolved a number of endogenous solid constituents
including bile salts, bilirubin phospholipid, cholesterol, amino acids, steroids, enzymes,
porphyrins, vitamins, and heavy metals, as well as exogenous drugs, xenobiotics and
environmental toxins
29.SPLENOMEGALY
Splenomegaly is a condition that occurs when your spleen becomes enlarged. It's also commonly
referred to as enlarged spleen or spleen enlargement. The spleen is a part of your lymphatic system.
It helps the immune system by storing white blood cells and helping in the creation of antibodies.

16. 30.RECEPTORS PRESENT IN EYE AND EAR
The sensory receptors of the eyes are the rods and cones, which are located in the retina. The rods
and cones are photoreceptors that detect light...
The six receptors of the inner ear (cochlea, two otolith organs and three semicircular canals) share
a common transduction unit made up of a sensory hair cell, a first order sensory neuron and the
synapse between them.
31.RODS AND CONE
Rods are responsible for vision at low light levels (scotopic vision). They do not mediate color
vision, and have a low spatial acuity. Cones are active at higher light levels (photopic vision), are
capable of color vision and are responsible for high spatial acuity.

17. 32.SENSATION OF TASTE
The gustatory system or sense of taste is the sensory system that is partially responsible for the
perception of taste (flavor). Taste is the perception produced or stimulated when a substance in
the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity,
mostly on the tongue.
33.OLFACTORY NERVE
Also known as CN1, the olfactory nerve is the first of 12 cranial nerves located within the head.
It relays sensory data to the brain, and it is responsible for the sense of smell. The olfactory
nerve contains only afferent sensory nerve fibers and, like all cranial nerves, is paired.

18. 34.GLAUCOMA
Glaucoma is a group of eye conditions that damage the optic nerve, the health of which is vital
for good vision. This damage is often caused by an abnormally high pressure in your eye. A group
of eye conditions that can cause blindness. Angle-closure glaucoma, although rare, is a medical
emergency and its symptoms include eye pain with nausea and sudden visual disturbance.
Treatment includes eye drops, medication and surgery.
35.BLURRED VISION
Blurred vision refers to a lack of sharpness of vision resulting in the inability to see fine
detail. Blurred vision may result from abnormalities such as nearsightedness, farsightedness,
presbyopia, or astigmatism that can be improved with corrective lenses (eyeglasses) or it may
signal the presence of eye disease.

19. 36.NIGHT BLINDNESS
Night blindness (nyctalopia) is your inability to see well at night or in poor light such as in a
restaurant or movie theater. It is often associated with an inability to quickly adapt from a well-
illuminated to a poorly illuminated environment.
37.ECG
An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) records the electrical signal from your heart to check for
different heart conditions. Electrodes are placed on your chest to record your heart's electrical
signals, which cause your heart to beat. The signals are shown as waves on an attached computer
monitor or printer.

20. 38.CARDIAC OUTPUT
Cardiac output is the amount of blood the heart pumps in 1 minute, and it is dependent on the
heart rate, contractility, preload, and afterload.
39.STROKE VOLUME
Stroke Volume (SV) is the volume of blood in millilitres ejected from the each ventricle due to
the contraction of the heart muscle which compresses these ventricles. SV is the difference
between end diastolic volume (EDV) and end systolic volume (ESV).

21. 40.HYPERTENSION
Hypertension is when blood pressure is too high. Blood pressure is written as two numbers. The
first (systolic) number represents the pressure in blood vessels when the heart contracts or beats.
The second (diastolic) number represents the pressure in the vessels when the heart rests between
beats. Usually hypertension is defined as blood pressure above 140/90, and is considered severe if
the pressure is above 180/120. High blood pressure often has no symptoms. Over time, if untreated,
it can cause health conditions, such as heart disease and stroke.
41.HYPOTENSION
Hypotension is the medical term for low blood pressure (less than 90/60). A blood pressure
reading appears as two numbers. The first and higher of the two is a measure of systolic pressure,
or the pressure in the arteries when the heart beats and fills them with blood.

22. 42.CHF
Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a chronic progressive condition that affects the pumping power
of your heart muscle. While often referred to simply as heart failure, CHF specifically refers to
the stage in which fluid builds up within the heart and causes it to pump inefficiently. Symptoms
include shortness of breath, fatigue, swollen legs and rapid heartbeat. Treatments can include
eating less salt, limiting fluid intake and taking prescription medication. In some cases a
defibrillator or pacemaker may be implanted.
43.MYOCARDIAL INFRACTION
Acute myocardial infarction is the medical name for a heart attack. A heart attack is a life-
threatening condition that occurs when blood flow to the heart muscle is abruptly cut off, causing
tissue damage. This is usually the result of a blockage in one or more of the coronary arteries.
Symptoms include tightness or pain in the chest, neck, back or arms, as well as fatigue,
lightheadedness, abnormal heartbeat and anxiety. Women are more likely to have atypical
symptoms than men. Treatment ranges from lifestyle changes and cardiac rehabilitation to
medication, stents and bypass surgery.

23. 44.ANGINA PECTORIS
Angina pectoris is the medical term for chest pain or discomfort due to coronary heart disease. It
occurs when the heart muscle doesn't get as much blood as it needs. This usually happens because
one or more of the heart's arteries is narrowed or blocked, also called ischemia. Angina feels like
squeezing, pressure, heaviness, tightness or pain in the chest. It can be sudden or recur over time.
Depending on severity, it can be treated by lifestyle changes, medication, angioplasty or surgery.
45.ARTHROSCLEROSIS
The build-up of fats, cholesterol and other substances in and on the artery walls. A build up of
cholesterol plaque in the walls of arteries, causing obstruction of blood flow. Plaques may rupture,
causing acute occlusion of the artery by clot. Atherosclerosis often has no symptoms until a plaque
ruptures or the build-up is severe enough to block blood flow. A healthy diet and exercise can help.
Treatments include medication, procedures to open blocked arteries and surgery.

24. 46.RHEMATOID ARTHRITIS
Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic inflammatory disorder that can affect more than just your joints.
In some people, the condition can damage a wide variety of body systems, including the skin, eyes,
lungs, heart and blood vessels. n rheumatoid arthritis, the body's immune system attacks its own
tissue, including joints. In severe cases, it attacks internal organs. Rheumatoid arthritis affects joint
linings, causing painful swelling. Over long periods of time, the inflammation associated with
rheumatoid arthritis can cause bone erosion and joint deformity.
Symptoms: Bone erosion; Deformity...
Risk Factors: Autoimmune disease; Tobacco smoking

25. 47.PULSE RATE
The normal pulse for healthy adults ranges from 60 to 100 beats per minute. The pulse rate may
fluctuate and increase with exercise, illness, injury, and emotions. Females ages 12 and older, in
general, tend to have faster heart rates than do males.
48.LYMPOMA
A cancer of the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is the body's disease-fighting network. It
includes the lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland and bone marrow. The main types of lymphoma
are Hodgkin's lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Symptoms include enlarged lymph
nodes, fatigue and weight loss. Treatment may involve chemotherapy, medication, radiation
therapy and rarely stem-cell transplant.

26. 49.BONES OF SKULL
Cranial base - comprised of six bones: frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, occipital, parietal and temporal.
These bones articulate with the 1st cervical vertebra (atlas), the facial bones, and the mandible
(jaw).
50.ERYTHROPOITIN
Erythropoietin (EPO) is a hormone produced primarily by the kidneys, with small amounts made
by the liver. EPO plays a key role in the production of red blood cells (RBCs), which carry oxygen
from the lungs to the rest of the body. Condition present: EPO level Polycythemia: Normal or
low Anemia: High
Erythropoietin, also known as erythropoetin, haematopoietin, or haemopoietin, is a glycoprotein
cytokine secreted mainly by the kidney in response to cellular hypoxia; it stimulates red blood cell
production in the bone marrow.