Acid and base Balance by Dr. Tehmas (Part 1)Tehmas Ahmad
Lecture of Biochemistry about Acid and Base Balance and Imbalance. 1st of 2 Lectures, delivered to students of 2nd professional MBBS students of Bannu Medical College, Bannu
THIS PRESENTATION WILL COVER THE FOLLOWING AREAS
Definitions
Buffer systems
Regulatory systems
Anion Gap and Osmolar gap
Metabolic acidosis
Metabolic alkalosis
Respiratory acidosis
Respiratory alkalosis
Acid and base Balance by Dr. Tehmas (Part 1)Tehmas Ahmad
Lecture of Biochemistry about Acid and Base Balance and Imbalance. 1st of 2 Lectures, delivered to students of 2nd professional MBBS students of Bannu Medical College, Bannu
THIS PRESENTATION WILL COVER THE FOLLOWING AREAS
Definitions
Buffer systems
Regulatory systems
Anion Gap and Osmolar gap
Metabolic acidosis
Metabolic alkalosis
Respiratory acidosis
Respiratory alkalosis
R3 Stem Cells and Kidney Repair A New Horizon in Nephrology.pptxR3 Stem Cell
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This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
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Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
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Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
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Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
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Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
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Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
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Hypertension is a chronic condition of concern due to its role in the causation of coronary heart diseases. Hypertension is a worldwide epidemic and important risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke and renal diseases. Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels and is sufficient to maintain tissue perfusion during activity and rest. Hypertension is sustained elevation of BP. In adults, HTN exists when systolic blood pressure is equal to or greater than 140mmHg or diastolic BP is equal to or greater than 90mmHg. The
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Navigating Challenges: Mental Health, Legislation, and the Prison System in B...Guillermo Rivera
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2. OBJECTIVES
after the completion of this concept you should be
able to:
• Characterize an acid and a base
• Describe the intracellular and extracellular
mechanisms for buffering changes in body pH
• Compare the role of the kidneys and
respiratory system in regulation of acid-base
balance
• Identify the causes of acid-base imbalances
• Analyze an ABG result
3. ACID-BASE CHEMISTRY
• ACID : a molecule that can release an H+
ion
• BASE : molecule that can accept or
combine with H+ ion
• Acid + water = dissociation H+ (+) anion
• CARBONIC ACID :the most important acid
• BICARBONATE : the most important base
4. Hydrogen ion
• Expressed in terms of pH
– The negative logarithm (p) of H+ ion concentration
in equivalents per liter
– Example : pH 7.0
• hydrogen ion concentration of 10 (negative power of 7)
equivalents per liter (mEq/L)
• pH is inversely related to H+ ion concentration:
– Low pH = high H+ ion concentration
– High pH = low H+ ion concentration
5. Metabolic acid and bicarbonate
production
• Acids are byproducts of metabolic processes
• 2 GROUPS OF ACIDS
– Volatile acids : carbonic acid (H2CO3)
• Leaves the body through the lungs
– Nonvolatile/fixed acids : sulfuric acids,
hydrochloric, phosphoric
• Source ; metabolism of dietary proteins
• Buffered by body proteins or bicarbonate
• Excreted by the kidney
6. • Lactic acid : incomplete oxidation of
glucose
• Ketoacids : incomplete oxidation of fats
7. • MAJOR SOURCE OF BASE:
– Metabolism of amino acids ( aspartate and
glutamate)
– Metabolism of anions ( citrate, lactate,
acetate)
9. CARBON DIOXIDE
• TRANSPORTED IN 3 FORMS
– Attached to hemoglobin
– Dissolved CO2
• Combines with water in the blood streamcarbonic acid
(H2CO3)
– Catalyzed by CARBONIC ANHYDRASE
– As bicarbonate
• CARBONIC ANHYDRASE
– Present in RBC, renal tubular`cells, other tissues in the body
• to calculate H2CO3:
– CO2 X .03 = _____ H2CO3
– EXAMPLE : PCO2 45 mmHg X 0.03 = 1.35 mEq/L
10. Sequence of events
1. CO2 produced by tissue
diffuses to interstitial fluid
2. CO2 diffuses into plasma
3. CO2 diffuses into RBC
4. Some CO2 picked up by Hb
5. Most CO2 reacts with water to
form carbonic acid-carbonic
anhydrase
6. Carbonic acid dissociates into
H+ and bicarbonate
7. Proton picked up by Hb
preventing acidifying blood
8. Bicarbonate diffuses into
plasma
9. Bicarbonate carried to lungs
11. 10.Bicarbonate diffuses
into RBC
11. H+ released from Hb
combines with
bicarbonate to form
carbonic acid
12. CO2 formed from
carbonic acid and
unloaded from Hb.
Diffuses out of blood
into interstitial fluid
13.CO2 diffuses into
alveolar space of lung
13. Chemical buffer systems
• Buffer is a substance that act as a chemical sponge. It
soaks up or release H ions to maintain stable Ph
• ACTION TIME OF CHEMICAL BUFFER SYSTEM :
INSTANTANEOUS
• CARBONIC ACID-BICARBONATE BUFFER
SYSTEM
– Present in ECF
– Carbonic acid is formed by the combination of carbon dioxide
and water (CO2+H2O=H2CO3)
– 20 parts bicarbonate : 1 part carbonic acid
– Maintained by lungs and kidney
14. • PHOSPHATE BUFFER SYSTEM
– Present in cells and ECF
– Activate in the kidneys
• PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM
– Present in plasma and in cells
– Albumin and plasma globulins are the major
protein buffers in the vascular compartment
– Hgb is one of the proteins involved
– Most plentiful buffer system
15. Respiratory control of pH
action time : minutes to hours
• Dec. in pH (more acid)
• Inc. RR and depth
• Inc. excretion of CO2
• alkalinity
16. • Inc. pH (more alkaline)
• Dec. RR and depth
• Retention of CO2
• acidity
17. Renal regulation of pH
• Controls bicarbonate concentration in
ECF
• H ions can be exchanged for Na and K
ions in the renal tubules
• Excretion or conservation of hydrogen
ions can result in imbalances of Na and K
• Action time : hours to days
20. Basic knowledge in interpretation
• If pH and pCO2 are primarily affected,
respiratory acid-base imbalances will occur
• If pH and HCO3 are primarily affected,
metabolic acid-base will be experienced
• The kidneys and lungs attempt to compensate
one another in maintaining acid-base balance
• In acid-base imbalances, the normal
bicarbonate-carbonic acid ratio of 20:1 is lost.
The body attempts to compensate in an effort
to maintain the normal 20:1 ratio
21. • In compensation, the kidneys attempt to
compensate for changes in blood CO2 by
making a corresponding adjustment in blood
bicarbonate. Normally, almost all the
bicarbonate formed by the kidneys are retained
• The lungs attempt to compensate for abnormal
changes in blood bicarbonate by making
corresponding adjustment in blood CO2
• Another compensatory mechanism for acid-
base imbalances is shifting of hydrogen ions
from the ECF to the ICF or vice versa
22. Shifting of hydrogen ions
• Inc. H ions (metabolic acidosis)
• H ions shift into ICF
• K moves out from ICF
• Inc. K (hyperkalemia)
23. • Dec. H ions ( metabolic alkalosis)
• H ions shift out from ICF
• K moves into ICF
• Dec. K (hypokalemia)
24. METABOLIC ACIDOSIS
• IMPAIRED ELIMINATION OF
METABOLIC ACID
– Kidney failure
• EXCESS PRODUCTION OF METABOLIC
ACIDS
– Diabetic ketoacidosis
– Fasting and starvation
– Poisoning (salicylate, methanol, ethylene glycol)
25. Metabolic acidosis
• EXCESS BICARBONATE LOSS
– Diarrhea
– Intestinal suction
– Hyperaldosteronism (CUSHING SYNDROME)
• INCREASED CHLORIDE LEVEL
– Excess reabsorption of chloride by the kidney
– Parenteral hyperalimentation
26. METABOLIC ALKALOSIS
• EXCESS GAIN OF BICARNONATE
– Administration of sodium bicarbonate
– Blood transfusion (citrate-containing)
• EXCESS LOSS OF HYDROGEN ION
– Vomiting
– Gastric suction
– Diuretic therapy (potassium deficit)
– Hyperaldosteronism
– Loss of body fluid
27. RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS
• DEPRESSION OF RESPIRATORY CENTER
– Drug overdose
– Head injury
• LUNG DISEASE
– COPD
– Pneumonia
– Pulmonary edema
– Respiratory distress syndrome
• AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION/DISORDER OF CHEST WALL
AND RESPIRATORY MUSCLE
– Chest injuries
– Extreme obesity
– Respiratory muscle paralysis
• BREATHING AIR WITH HIGH CO2 CONTENT
28. RESPIRATORY ALKALOSIS
• EXCESSIVE VENTILATION
– Anxiety and psychogenic hyperventilation
– Hypoxia and reflex stimulation of ventilation
– Stimulation to respiratory center
• Elevated blood ammonia level
• Salicylate toxicity
• Encephalitis
• fever
• MECHANICAL VENTILATION
30. 4. Determine the extent of
compensation
• ABSENT: the value that does not match the
acid-base status of the pH is normal
• PARTIAL: both the value that doesn’t match
the acid-base status of the pH and the pH itself
are abnormal
• COMPLETE: the value that doesn’t match the
acid-base status is abnormal but the pH is
normal