Accessory nerve
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The accessory nerve has both a spinal and cranial component. The spinal component originates from spinal nerve roots C1-C6 and innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. The cranial component originates in the medulla and joins with the vagus nerve. The accessory nerve is vulnerable to damage due to its superficial extracranial course.
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Accessory nerve xi
The spinal accessory nerve is a unique cranial nerve that has both a cranial and spinal component. It originates from motor neurons in the upper cervical spinal cord and nucleus ambiguus. The cranial component joins with the vagus nerve after exiting the skull through the jugular foramen. The spinal component separates and innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, supplying motor function to the neck and shoulder regions. Injury to the spinal accessory nerve can result in weakness of the sternocleidomastoid or trapezius muscles on the same side, causing issues with head and shoulder movement.
Accessory nerve xi
accessory nerve, nuclei of accessory nerve, spinal component of accessory nerve, cranial component of accessory nerve, accessory nerve palsy
Accessory nerve
This document discusses the spinal accessory nerve (cranial nerve XI), which has both spinal and cranial parts. The spinal part arises from the cervical spinal cord and innervates the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles. The cranial part arises from the medulla and joins with the vagus nerve. Damage to the spinal accessory nerve can cause weakness of the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles and difficulty rotating the head.
Xi cranial nerve
The accessory nerve (XI) has both a cranial and spinal root. The cranial root arises from the nucleus ambiguous and joins the vagus nerve, innervating pharyngeal muscles. The spinal root arises from cervical spinal cord segments C1-C5 and exits the skull through the jugular foramen. It innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. Lesions or injuries to the accessory nerve can cause paralysis of these muscles and result in issues like drooping shoulders, inability to turn the head, or torticollis.
Glossopharyngeal (cn ix) and vagus (
The document discusses the glossopharyngeal (CN IX) and vagus (CN X) nerves. It covers their anatomy, functions, and clinical assessment. The glossopharyngeal nerve innervates the pharynx and posterior tongue. The vagus nerve is the longest cranial nerve, innervating muscles of the pharynx and larynx, and the heart and gastrointestinal tract via parasympathetic fibers. Clinical examination focuses on motor function of soft palate, larynx, and reflexes. Lesions are localized based on involved structures and associated deficits in other cranial nerves.
Glossopharyngeal nerve
glossopharyngeal nerve, origin an course and termination of glossopharyngeal nerve, functional component of the nerve, sensory and motor component of glossopharyngeal nerve, gag reflex
HYPOGLOSSAL NERVE
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Vagus nerve
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Accessory nerve xi
The spinal accessory nerve is a unique cranial nerve that has both a cranial and spinal component. It originates from motor neurons in the upper cervical spinal cord and nucleus ambiguus. The cranial component joins with the vagus nerve after exiting the skull through the jugular foramen. The spinal component separates and innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, supplying motor function to the neck and shoulder regions. Injury to the spinal accessory nerve can result in weakness of the sternocleidomastoid or trapezius muscles on the same side, causing issues with head and shoulder movement.
Accessory nerve xi
accessory nerve, nuclei of accessory nerve, spinal component of accessory nerve, cranial component of accessory nerve, accessory nerve palsy
Accessory nerve
This document discusses the spinal accessory nerve (cranial nerve XI), which has both spinal and cranial parts. The spinal part arises from the cervical spinal cord and innervates the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles. The cranial part arises from the medulla and joins with the vagus nerve. Damage to the spinal accessory nerve can cause weakness of the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles and difficulty rotating the head.
Xi cranial nerve
The accessory nerve (XI) has both a cranial and spinal root. The cranial root arises from the nucleus ambiguous and joins the vagus nerve, innervating pharyngeal muscles. The spinal root arises from cervical spinal cord segments C1-C5 and exits the skull through the jugular foramen. It innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. Lesions or injuries to the accessory nerve can cause paralysis of these muscles and result in issues like drooping shoulders, inability to turn the head, or torticollis.
Glossopharyngeal (cn ix) and vagus (
The document discusses the glossopharyngeal (CN IX) and vagus (CN X) nerves. It covers their anatomy, functions, and clinical assessment. The glossopharyngeal nerve innervates the pharynx and posterior tongue. The vagus nerve is the longest cranial nerve, innervating muscles of the pharynx and larynx, and the heart and gastrointestinal tract via parasympathetic fibers. Clinical examination focuses on motor function of soft palate, larynx, and reflexes. Lesions are localized based on involved structures and associated deficits in other cranial nerves.
Glossopharyngeal nerve
glossopharyngeal nerve, origin an course and termination of glossopharyngeal nerve, functional component of the nerve, sensory and motor component of glossopharyngeal nerve, gag reflex
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Cranial nerves x,xi & xii
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Hypoglossal nerve
The hypoglossal nerve originates in the hypoglossal nucleus of the medulla and innervates the muscles of the tongue. It exits the skull through the hypoglossal canal and descends through the neck. Lesions can occur at the supranuclear, nuclear, or peripheral levels. Supranuclear lesions of the corticobulbar tract cause contralateral tongue weakness without atrophy. Nuclear lesions in the medulla result in ipsilateral tongue paresis, atrophy and fasciculations. Peripheral lesions of the hypoglossal nerve cause ipsilateral tongue paresis through the hypoglossal canal.
Cavernous sinus
The cavernous sinus is a pair of venous channels located on each side of the body of the sphenoid bone in the middle cranial fossa. It is approximately 2 cm long and 1 cm wide. Several important structures pass through or are located within the cavernous sinus, including the internal carotid artery, cranial nerves III, IV, V1, and VI, and the inferior hypophyseal arteries. The cavernous sinus drains into various venous channels including the superior and inferior petrosal sinuses, which connect to the transverse sinus and internal jugular vein. Cavernous sinus thrombosis is a potential complication caused by sepsis that can spread from the face or paranasal sinuses,
Accessory & hypoglossal nerves
This document provides information about the cranial nerves, including:
- There are traditionally twelve pairs of cranial nerves in humans, with the first two emerging from the cerebrum and the remaining ten from the brainstem.
- Cranial nerves I-XI are part of the peripheral nervous system, while cranial nerve II is a tract of the diencephalon.
- Cranial nerves XI and XII evolved in amniotes to total twelve pairs across vertebrate species.
- The accessory nerve or CN XI controls muscles of the neck and shoulder. Damage can cause weakness of the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.
- The hypoglossal nerve or CN X
Hypoglossal nerve
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Olfactory nerve
The olfactory nerve (CN I) is the first and shortest cranial nerve. It transmits smell information from olfactory receptor cells in the nasal epithelium to the olfactory bulb. Axons from the receptor cells penetrate the cribriform plate and synapse with mitral cells in the olfactory bulb. Second order neurons in the olfactory tract carry signals to the primary olfactory cortex, involved in memory and appreciation of smells. The olfactory nerve is unique as a special sensory nerve that detects odors.
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Cranial nerves xi and xii
The document discusses cranial nerves XI and XII. CN XI is the spinal accessory nerve which has a cranial and spinal portion. The cranial portion innervates muscles of the larynx while the spinal portion innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. CN XII is the hypoglossal nerve which solely innervates the muscles of the tongue. Clinical examination of both nerves involves assessing strength and movement of their respective muscles. Lesions can occur at supranuclear, nuclear or infranuclear levels and cause varying patterns of weakness depending on the location.
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Vagus nerve
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Surgical anatomy of cranial nerves pallav
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- It describes the names, numbers and basic functions of each cranial nerve.
- It discusses the nuclei, pathways and branches of several key nerves - the trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves - in more detail.
- It explains that cranial nerves have both sensory and motor components, and lists their functional roles like proprioception, vision, taste, etc.
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Vagus nerve
The vagus nerve is:
- The longest and most widely distributed of the cranial nerves.
- A mixed nerve that is mostly motor and innervates structures in the head, neck, thorax, and abdomen.
- Involved in motor function of the pharynx and larynx, and parasympathetic function like regulating heart rate and smooth muscle of organs.
- Assessed clinically by having a patient say "ah" and observing for symmetry of soft palate movement.
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Cranial nerve nuclei
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Cavernous sinus
The cavernous sinus is located in the middle cranial fossa on either side of the body of the sphenoid bone and sella turcica. It contains the internal carotid artery and cranial nerves III, IV, V1, and VI. The cavernous sinus drains into the angular vein, pterygoid venous plexus, and intercavernous sinuses which connect the two cavernous sinuses. Clinical implications include spread of infection or thrombosis from the face into the cavernous sinus via connections to facial veins.
accessory nerve assignment for nervous vvv
The accessory nerve has both a spinal and cranial component. The spinal component arises from cervical spinal nerve roots C1-C6 and innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. It exits the skull through the foramen magnum and jugular foramen. The cranial component originates in the medulla and joins the vagus nerve after exiting the skull. The spinal component is responsible for motor function to the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.
Cranial nerves
The document discusses the 12 pairs of cranial nerves. It provides details on the olfactory nerve (CN I), optic nerve (CN II), oculomotor nerve (CN III), trochlear nerve (CN IV), abducent nerve (CN VI), and trigeminal nerve (CN V). It describes the functions, nuclei, pathways and innervation areas for each of these cranial nerves.
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Cranial nerves x,xi & xii
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
Hypoglossal nerve
The hypoglossal nerve originates in the hypoglossal nucleus of the medulla and innervates the muscles of the tongue. It exits the skull through the hypoglossal canal and descends through the neck. Lesions can occur at the supranuclear, nuclear, or peripheral levels. Supranuclear lesions of the corticobulbar tract cause contralateral tongue weakness without atrophy. Nuclear lesions in the medulla result in ipsilateral tongue paresis, atrophy and fasciculations. Peripheral lesions of the hypoglossal nerve cause ipsilateral tongue paresis through the hypoglossal canal.
Cavernous sinus
The cavernous sinus is a pair of venous channels located on each side of the body of the sphenoid bone in the middle cranial fossa. It is approximately 2 cm long and 1 cm wide. Several important structures pass through or are located within the cavernous sinus, including the internal carotid artery, cranial nerves III, IV, V1, and VI, and the inferior hypophyseal arteries. The cavernous sinus drains into various venous channels including the superior and inferior petrosal sinuses, which connect to the transverse sinus and internal jugular vein. Cavernous sinus thrombosis is a potential complication caused by sepsis that can spread from the face or paranasal sinuses,
Accessory & hypoglossal nerves
This document provides information about the cranial nerves, including:
- There are traditionally twelve pairs of cranial nerves in humans, with the first two emerging from the cerebrum and the remaining ten from the brainstem.
- Cranial nerves I-XI are part of the peripheral nervous system, while cranial nerve II is a tract of the diencephalon.
- Cranial nerves XI and XII evolved in amniotes to total twelve pairs across vertebrate species.
- The accessory nerve or CN XI controls muscles of the neck and shoulder. Damage can cause weakness of the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.
- The hypoglossal nerve or CN X
Hypoglossal nerve
hypoglossal nerve, origin course an termination of hypoglossal nerve, function of hypoglossal nerve, clinical examination of hypoglossal nerve, hypoglossal nerve palsy
Anatomy of midbrain
The brain stem is located between the cerebrum and spinal cord, and consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The midbrain connects the forebrain to the pons and cerebellum. It contains important centers for visual and auditory reflexes, and gives rise to the trochlear nerve. Key structures in the midbrain include the superior and inferior colliculi, oculomotor nucleus, red nucleus, and substantia nigra. The midbrain serves to relay motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and forebrain.
Olfactory nerve
The olfactory nerve (CN I) is the first and shortest cranial nerve. It transmits smell information from olfactory receptor cells in the nasal epithelium to the olfactory bulb. Axons from the receptor cells penetrate the cribriform plate and synapse with mitral cells in the olfactory bulb. Second order neurons in the olfactory tract carry signals to the primary olfactory cortex, involved in memory and appreciation of smells. The olfactory nerve is unique as a special sensory nerve that detects odors.
Cranial nerves neuroanatomy
This document discusses the anatomy and functional components of the 12 cranial nerves. It provides names and classifications of each nerve as sensory, motor, or mixed. It describes the deep origin nuclei and fiber types of each nerve, including their development, branches to visceral arches, and types of sensations carried. Diagrams are included to illustrate cranial nerve nuclei and fiber classifications. The glossopharyngeal nerve section provides more detail on its afferent and efferent nuclear origins and fibers.
Cranial nerves xi and xii
The document discusses cranial nerves XI and XII. CN XI is the spinal accessory nerve which has a cranial and spinal portion. The cranial portion innervates muscles of the larynx while the spinal portion innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. CN XII is the hypoglossal nerve which solely innervates the muscles of the tongue. Clinical examination of both nerves involves assessing strength and movement of their respective muscles. Lesions can occur at supranuclear, nuclear or infranuclear levels and cause varying patterns of weakness depending on the location.
Dural folds and cavernous sinus
The document summarizes key anatomical structures related to the dura mater and cavernous sinus. It describes the layers of the meninges and identifies four dural folds - the falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli, falx cerebelli, and diaphragma sella. It also details the location, relations, tributaries, and communications of the cavernous sinus.
Vagus nerve
The vagus nerve originates in the medulla oblongata and travels through the neck and thorax, innervating organs along the way. It gives rise to branches like the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The vagus nerve contains fibers that emerge from four nuclei in the medulla related to parasympathetic output, motor function, sensation, and taste. It provides both sensory and motor function to various organs in the neck, thorax and abdomen. Damage to the vagus nerve can cause issues like hoarseness, difficulty swallowing, and an abnormal palate appearance.
Abducens nerve
The abducens nerve is the sixth cranial nerve that arises from the pons and exits the brainstem at the junction of the pons and medulla. It travels through Dorello's canal and the cavernous sinus within the dura before entering the orbit through the superior orbital fissure. Within the orbit, the abducens nerve innervates the lateral rectus muscle, providing motor function to control abduction of the eyeball.
Surgical anatomy of cranial nerves pallav
The document provides an overview of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves:
- It describes the names, numbers and basic functions of each cranial nerve.
- It discusses the nuclei, pathways and branches of several key nerves - the trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves - in more detail.
- It explains that cranial nerves have both sensory and motor components, and lists their functional roles like proprioception, vision, taste, etc.
Corpus callosum with disconnection syndromes
This document discusses the anatomy and functions of the corpus callosum. It describes the corpus callosum as the wide bundle of neural fibers beneath the cortex that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres. It summarizes that the corpus callosum is divided into five regions - the splenium, body, genu, rostrum, and isthmus. It also briefly discusses the blood supply, development, and functions of the different regions of the corpus callosum.
Third ventricle
The third ventricle is a midline cavity located between the two thalami and hypothalami. It communicates with the lateral ventricles via the foramen of Monroe and with the fourth ventricle via the cerebral aqueduct. The third ventricle's roof is formed by the fornix and tela choroidea, while its floor extends from the optic chiasm to the posterior perforated substance. The third ventricle can be accessed surgically through various anterior or posterior approaches between brain structures such as the fornix.
Vagus nerve
The vagus nerve is:
- The longest and most widely distributed of the cranial nerves.
- A mixed nerve that is mostly motor and innervates structures in the head, neck, thorax, and abdomen.
- Involved in motor function of the pharynx and larynx, and parasympathetic function like regulating heart rate and smooth muscle of organs.
- Assessed clinically by having a patient say "ah" and observing for symmetry of soft palate movement.
Third ventricle
Connected laterally to lateral ventricles by means of Foramen of Monro and caudally to 4th ventricle by means of Aqueduct of sylvius
Parasympathetic ganglia of Head and Neck
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quick revision at the end
Cranial nerve nuclei
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in the brain with motor and/or sensory nuclei in the brain stem. Each cranial nerve has its own nucleus of origin or termination. These nuclei are arranged medio-laterally and include somatic, visceral, special, and general fibers. The medio-lateral arrangement includes sensory, special visceral efferent, general visceral efferent, general visceral afferent, special visceral afferent, general somatic afferent, and special somatic afferent. Cranial nerve nuclei are located in the midbrain, pons, and medulla.
Cavernous sinus
The cavernous sinus is located in the middle cranial fossa on either side of the body of the sphenoid bone and sella turcica. It contains the internal carotid artery and cranial nerves III, IV, V1, and VI. The cavernous sinus drains into the angular vein, pterygoid venous plexus, and intercavernous sinuses which connect the two cavernous sinuses. Clinical implications include spread of infection or thrombosis from the face into the cavernous sinus via connections to facial veins.
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accessory nerve assignment for nervous vvv
The accessory nerve has both a spinal and cranial component. The spinal component arises from cervical spinal nerve roots C1-C6 and innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. It exits the skull through the foramen magnum and jugular foramen. The cranial component originates in the medulla and joins the vagus nerve after exiting the skull. The spinal component is responsible for motor function to the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.
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Posterior Cervical region.pptx
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Nerves of the neck
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This document discusses the sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the head. It describes the anatomy and course of the sympathetic nerves, which originate in the thoracic spinal cord and ascend to three cervical ganglia. It details the ganglia and nerves that arise from each, including their target organs. It then discusses the parasympathetic innervation, which originates in cranial nerve nuclei and travels to four head ganglia. It provides information on the ganglia, pre- and post-ganglionic fibers, and target organs for each. Finally, it briefly introduces the trigeminal nerve, its nuclei, ganglion and three terminal divisions.
Sensory phisiology
The oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens cranial nerves innervate the six extraocular muscles in each orbit. The oculomotor nerve supplies all extraocular muscles except the lateral rectus and superior oblique. It originates from nuclei in the midbrain and has somatic and visceral motor components. The abducens nerve innervates just the lateral rectus muscle and has cell populations that decussate. The trochlear nerve is the only cranial nerve that passes through the superior orbital fissure above the annulus of Zinn. Lesions of these cranial nerves can result in specific eye movement disorders.
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This document provides an overview of the spinal cord, including its location, coverings, internal structure, and tracts. Key points include:
- The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum to the L1-L2 vertebrae and is covered by meninges.
- Internally it contains gray matter in an H-shape containing sensory and motor neurons, surrounded by white matter tracts.
- Ascending tracts transmit sensory information to the brain and descending tracts carry motor commands from the brain. The major tracts discussed are the spinothalamic, dorsal column, and corticospinal tracts.
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The posterior cranial fossa contains the brainstem and cerebellum. It houses the cerebellum, medulla, and pons. It receives 11 of the 12 cranial nerves, excluding the olfactory nerve. The cranial nerve nuclei are arranged with efferent nuclei medially and sensory nuclei laterally. From medial to lateral the general arrangement is: general somatic efferent, special visceral efferent, general visceral efferent, general visceral afferent, special visceral afferent, general sensory afferent, and special somatic afferent nuclei. The document provides details on the specific cranial nerves and nuclei in the brainstem.
Occulo motor nerve dnm
The third cranial nerve, also known as the oculomotor nerve, originates from nuclei located in the midbrain and controls most of the extraocular muscles as well as the iris and ciliary body. It is responsible for eye movement, pupil constriction, and accommodation. Damage to the third cranial nerve results in ptosis, external ophthalmoplegia, mydriasis, and loss of accommodation due to paralysis of the extraocular muscles, sphincter pupillae, and ciliary body respectively.
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Muscles of the neck
The document describes several muscle groups in the neck. It discusses the suboccipital muscles, which are located underneath the occipital bone and collectively extend and rotate the head. It also details the suprahyoid muscles above the hyoid bone that elevate the hyoid during swallowing, the infrahyoid muscles below the hyoid bone that depress the hyoid, and the scalene muscles on the lateral neck that elevate the ribs and flex the neck. For each muscle, it provides origins, insertions, actions, and innervation.
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The trigeminal nerve is the largest of the cranial nerves. It has both sensory and motor components. It originates from four nuclei in the brainstem and exits the skull through three divisions - ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular. The ophthalmic division innervates parts of the face, eye, and nasal cavity. The maxillary division innervates parts of the face, nasal cavity, and palate. The mandibular division innervates muscles of mastication and parts of the face.
Clinical anatomy of 9 th cranial nerve
The glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) exits the brainstem and has several functions:
- It provides general and special sensory innervation to the back third of the tongue (taste sensation), tonsils, middle ear, and pharynx.
- It supplies a parasympathetic branch that stimulates saliva production in the parotid gland.
- It provides motor innervation to the stylopharyngeus muscle, which elevates the pharynx during swallowing.
The nerve exits the skull via the jugular foramen and branches to innervate its target areas.
презентация Accesorius
The accessory nerve controls specific muscles of the neck. It begins in the central nervous system and exits the cranium through a foramen. Unlike other cranial nerves, it begins outside the skull rather than inside, originating in the upper spinal cord. It innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. Injury can cause diminished function of these muscles.
Cervical plexus
The cervical plexus is a network of nerves formed by the ventral rami of cervical spinal nerves C1-C4. It provides sensory and motor innervation to the neck and shoulder regions. The cervical plexus gives rise to cutaneous branches that innervate the skin of the neck and shoulders, including the lesser occipital, great auricular, transverse cervical, and supraclavicular nerves. It also forms motor branches like the ansa cervicalis that innervate neck muscles. The phrenic nerve, which originates from C3-C5 and innervates the diaphragm, is another important branch of the cervical plexus.
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This document provides tips for students on how to succeed in medical school. It emphasizes empowering your mind, body, and soul to be fully present. For the mind, it recommends knowing your learning style, reviewing consistently and efficiently, and renewing your mind with hobbies. For the body, it suggests focusing on nutrition, exercise, and sleep. For the soul, it advises developing self-awareness, knowing your purpose, and building community. The overall message is to take things one step at a time by empowering all aspects of yourself.
5. acid base balance
The document discusses acid-base homeostasis and physiology. It explains that the body tightly regulates blood pH through bicarbonate buffering and the actions of the kidneys and lungs. The kidneys regulate bicarbonate levels over hours to days while the lungs regulate carbon dioxide levels over minutes to maintain pH. Metabolic acidosis occurs when bicarbonate is lost or protons are gained, and can be categorized as respiratory or non-respiratory based on the anion gap. Metabolic alkalosis occurs when acid is lost or base is gained. Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis occur when carbon dioxide is retained or lost, respectively.
4. ion balance
The kidney plays a key role in maintaining the external balance of potassium through regulating its reabsorption and secretion. Most potassium is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule through passive mechanisms. In the thick ascending limb, the NKCC2 channel actively transports potassium into cells, while the distal convoluted tubule uses the H+-K+-ATPase channel to couple potassium reabsorption to hydrogen secretion. Potassium secretion occurs mainly in the collecting duct, driven by the sodium-potassium ATPase pumping sodium out and potassium into cells, creating gradients for potassium to exit into the tubule lumen. Factors such as aldosterone, acid-base status, and luminal flow influence potassium regulation.
3. urinary regulation
The document discusses the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) which regulates blood pressure and fluid balance. RAAS involves the hormones renin, angiotensin II, and aldosterone. Renin is released by the kidneys in response to low sodium levels, low blood pressure, or sympathetic stimulation. Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, which is then converted to angiotensin II by the lungs. Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction, sodium reabsorption by the kidneys, aldosterone release by the adrenals, and thirst stimulation. This increases blood pressure and volume.
2. micturition
The document discusses the storage and voiding phases of micturition, or urination. During storage, the bladder relaxes and the urethral sphincters contract, allowing urine to be stored. Sympathetic signals relax the bladder and contract the internal urethral sphincter, while somatic signals contract the external sphincter. As the bladder fills, its walls distend to maintain low pressure. During voiding, parasympathetic signals cause the bladder to contract while relaxing the sphincters, allowing urine to be released.
1. the nephron
The nephron is the basic functional unit of the kidney. The nephron consists of a renal corpuscle and renal tubule. The renal tubule can be divided into the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), Loop of Henle, and distal convoluted tubule. The PCT has a high capacity for reabsorption due to specialized structures like brush borders and transport channels/proteins. It reabsorbs around 65% of water, sodium, potassium and chloride through bulk transport via paracellular and transcellular routes. Transport is powered by the basolateral and apical membrane channels and pumps, and mitochondria provide energy for these processes.
6. immune responses
This document discusses acute inflammation. It begins with an overview, describing acute inflammation as an innate response to tissue injury in the short term. It then discusses the causes and features of acute inflammation, including redness, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function. Next, it details the tissue changes that occur, such as increased blood flow, fluid exudation, and the roles of mast cells, histamine, and cytokines. It also explains the cellular phase, focusing on the infiltration of neutrophils. Finally, it discusses how acute inflammation helps control infection and restore tissues.
5. adaptive immune system
Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are Y-shaped glycoproteins produced by plasma cells that recognize and bind to antigens. They consist of two heavy chains and two light chains which give the antibody its structure. The variable regions of the heavy and light chains determine antigen specificity. Antibodies function by opsonizing pathogens to promote phagocytosis, neutralizing viruses and toxins, activating the complement system, forming immune complexes, and mediating antibody-dependent cytotoxicity. The different classes of antibodies are IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE, which have various roles in immunity.
4. innate immune system
The document discusses the various barriers that the innate immune system uses to prevent infection. It describes physical barriers like the skin and mucous membranes. It also discusses physiological barriers such as diarrhea and vomiting that actively remove pathogens. Additionally, it outlines chemical barriers such as antimicrobial peptides and low pH levels that create an inhospitable environment for microbes. Finally, it examines the biological barrier of normal flora that compete with pathogens for resources. Breaking down these innate barriers can allow pathogens to colonize and cause infection if left unchecked by the adaptive immune response.
3. cells of the immune system
The document provides an overview of the five main types of white blood cells (leukocytes):
1) Neutrophils, which fight bacterial and fungal infections;
2) Monocytes, which fight bacterial infections and differentiate into macrophages;
3) Eosinophils, which fight parasitic infections;
4) Basophils, which are involved in allergic responses; and
5) Lymphocytes, which fight viral infections and are divided into natural killer cells, T cells, and B cells.
2. infections
Penicillins work by inhibiting the cross-linking of peptidoglycans in bacterial cell walls. Cephalosporins and carbapenems also inhibit this process through their beta-lactam ring structure. Glycopeptides prevent cross-linking through binding to cell wall proteins instead of DD-transpeptidase. Aminoglycosides inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit, while macrolides do the same through the 50S subunit.
1. hematology
Erythropoiesis is the process by which red blood cells are produced. It occurs primarily in the bone marrow in adults. The key stages include the production of normoblasts from hematopoietic stem cells, which then mature into reticulocytes and finally erythrocytes. Erythropoiesis is tightly regulated by the hormone erythropoietin, which is produced by the kidneys in response to low oxygen levels and acts in the bone marrow to stimulate red blood cell production. On average, the body produces around 2.5 billion new red blood cells per kilogram per day through this process.
8. the spleen
The spleen filters blood and fights infections. It contains two types of tissues: white pulp contains lymphocytes that help produce antibodies when pathogens are detected, and red pulp contains cords and sinuses that remove old blood cells and filter the blood. The spleen helps fight encapsulated bacteria and stores extra red blood cells. It is not vital but its removal increases risk of certain infections.
7. the pancreas
The pancreas has both exocrine and endocrine functions. The exocrine pancreas secretes digestive enzymes like proteases, lipase, and amylase through acinar cells into ducts. These enzymes are synthesized and stored as inactive zymogens that are activated in the small intestine. The pancreas also secretes bicarbonate through duct cells to neutralize stomach acid. Secretin and cholecystokinin hormones stimulate pancreatic secretions in response to food in the duodenum. Disorders of the exocrine pancreas can cause maldigestion.
6. the gallbladder
The liver produces bile which is stored in the gallbladder and released during digestion to emulsify fats. Bile is composed of bile acids, bilirubin, electrolytes, and other components. Bile acids are produced by hepatocytes and secreted into bile ducts, while other components are added by ductal cells. The hormones cholecystokinin and secretin stimulate gallbladder contraction and bile secretion. Most bile acids are reabsorbed and recirculated to the liver through the enterohepatic circulation.
5. the liver
The liver plays a key role in metabolizing bilirubin. Bilirubin is produced from the breakdown of red blood cells and exists in unconjugated and conjugated forms. The liver conjugates bilirubin, making it water-soluble so it can be excreted in bile. In the intestines, bacteria convert bilirubin to urobilinogen and its byproducts, which are excreted in feces and urine. Clinical conditions can occur if bilirubin is not properly metabolized, such as jaundice.
4. the large intestine
The document discusses absorption in the large intestine. It notes that the large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes like sodium, chloride, and potassium. Short-chain fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals are also absorbed through the large intestine due to digestion by gut bacteria. Absorption is regulated by hormones like aldosterone and the autonomic nervous system. The large intestine propels contents through haustral shuttling and mass movements to facilitate absorption and storage of waste as feces.
3. the small intestine
The small intestine is responsible for digestion and absorption of nutrients. It has a highly folded mucosa layer containing absorptive enterocytes and secretory goblet and enteroendocrine cells. The enteroendocrine cells secrete hormones like CCK, secretin, and GIP in response to nutrients in the lumen. The small intestine receives pancreatic enzymes and bile, which aid in digestion, through the hepatopancreatic duct. Absorbed nutrients then pass into the bloodstream for use by the body.
2. the stomach
The document discusses acid production in the stomach. It outlines that the parietal cells in the stomach lining produce hydrochloric acid through a multi-step process involving carbonic acid, hydrogen ions, and chloride ions. Acid production is increased by the hormone gastrin and acetylcholine released by the vagus nerve. It is decreased by hormones like somatostatin, cholecystokinin, and secretin which are released in response to food in the duodenum. The document also reviews questions about this topic.
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Gastrointestinal Infections
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS result from the ingestion of pathogens that cause infections at the level of this tract, generally being transmitted by food, water and hands contaminated by microorganisms such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, Rotavirus among others that are generally contained in feces, thus configuring a FECAL-ORAL type of transmission.
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Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin
Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin
Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin
About AOMA: The Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin offers a masters-level graduate program in acupuncture and Oriental medicine, preparing its students for careers as skilled, professional practitioners. AOMA is known for its internationally recognized faculty, award-winning student clinical internship program, and herbal medicine program. Since its founding in 1993, AOMA has grown rapidly in size and reputation, drawing students from around the nation and faculty from around the world. AOMA also conducts more than 20,000 patient visits annually in its student and professional clinics. AOMA collaborates with Western healthcare institutions including the Seton Family of Hospitals, and gives back to the community through partnerships with nonprofit organizations and by providing free and reduced price treatments to people who cannot afford them. The Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin is located at 2700 West Anderson Lane. AOMA also serves patients and retail customers at its south Austin location, 4701 West Gate Blvd. For more information see www.aoma.edu or call 512-492-303434.
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Accessory nerve
- 2. ACCESSORY NERVE CN XI: ANATOMICAL COURSE ▸ The accessory nerve is the eleventh paired cranial nerve ▸ It has a purely somatic motor function, innervating the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles ▸ Traditionally, the accessory nerve is divided into spinal and cranial parts Spinal Component ▸ The spinal portion arises from neurones of the upper spinal cord, specifically C1-C5/C6 spinal nerve roots ▸ These fibres coalesce to form the spinal part of the accessory nerve, which then runs superiorly to enter the cranial cavity via the foramen magnum
- 3. ACCESSORY NERVE CN XI: ANATOMICAL COURSE - SPINAL COMPONENT ▸ The nerve traverses the posterior cranial fossa to reach the jugular foramen ▸ It briefly meets the cranial portion of the accessory nerve, before exiting the skull (along with the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves) ▸ Outside the cranium, the spinal part descends along the internal carotid artery to reach the sternocleidomastoid muscle, which it innervates ▸ It then moves across the posterior triangle of the neck to supply motor fibres to the trapezius ▸ Note: The extracranial course of the accessory nerve is relatively superficial (it runs between the investing and prevertebral layers of fascia), and thus leaves it vulnerable to damage
- 5. ACCESSORY NERVE CN XI: ANATOMICAL COURSE - CRANIAL COMPONENT ▸ The cranial portion is much smaller, and arises from the lateral aspect of the medulla oblongata ▸ It leaves the cranium via the jugular foramen, where it briefly contacts the spinal part of the accessory nerve ▸ Immediately after leaving the skull, cranial part combines with the vagus nerve (CN X) at the inferior ganglion of vagus nerve ▸ The fibres from the cranial part are then distributed through the vagus nerve ▸ For this reason, the cranial part of the accessory nerve is considered as part of the vagus nerve
- 6. ACCESSORY NERVE CN XI: MOTOR FUNCTION ▸ The spinal accessory nerve innervates two muscles ▸ the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius Sternocleidomastoid ▸ Attachments ▸ Runs from the mastoid process of the temporal bone to the manubrium (sternal head) and the medial third of the clavicle (clavicular head) ▸ Actions ▸ Lateral flexion and rotation of the neck when acting unilaterally, and anterior flexion of the neck at the atlanto-occipital joints when acting bilaterally
- 7. ACCESSORY NERVE CN XI: MOTOR FUNCTION Trapezius ▸ Attachments ▸ Runs from the base of the skull and the spinous processes of the C7-T12 vertebrae to lateral third of the clavicle and the acromion of the scapula ▸ Actions ▸ It is made up of upper, middle and lower fibres ▸ The upper fibres of the trapezius elevate the scapula and rotate it during abduction of the arm ▸ The middle fibres retract the scapula and the lower fibres pull the scapula inferiorly
- 11. References ▸ These slide reflect a summary of the contents of TeachMeAnatomy.info and are to be used for educational purposes only in compliance with the terms of use policy. Specific portions referenced in this summary are as follows: ▸ https://teachmeanatomy.info/head/cranial-nerves/ accessory/ Additional sources are referenced on the slide containing that specific content.