Observations conducted by researchers revealed that the group interaction within crowds is a common phenomenon and has great influence on pedestrian behaviour. However, most research currently undertaken by various researchers failed to consider the group dynamics when developing pedestrian flow models. This paper presented a critical review of pedestrian models that incorporates group behaviour. Models reviewed in this paper are mainly created by microscopic modelling approaches such as social force, cellular automata, and agent-based method. The purpose of this literature review is to improve the understanding of group dynamics among pedestrians and highlight the need for considering group dynamics when developing pedestrian simulation models.
Commuters’ Perception of Legibility and Complexity with Respect to Path Choic...drboon
The effect of environmental factors on walking behavior needs to be considered based on the purpose of walking trip; whether walking for transport or walking for recreational purposes. Since everybody walks on his/her daily transport, studying walking behavior of those who walk for transport would contribute to maintain the minimum rate of physical activity. Commuters are the major group of those who walk for transport. It was found that the path choice of pedestrians can be considered to examine the effects of environmental factors on walking behavior. Introducing two environmental factors of perceived legibility and perceived complexity, it is demonstrated that the theoretical and empirical relationship between these factors and walking behavior as well as the path choice criteria, leads to define these two factors in accordance with commuter’s specifications. Accordingly, both perceived legibility and perceived complexity are two important path choice criteria of commuters in CBD of Kuala Lumpur.
THE IMPACT OF WAITING TIME ON PEDESTRIAN VIOLATIONS AT SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS civej
The phenomenon that pedestrian violates traffic signals at intersections and crosses with danger is universal. This study aims to find out the influence of the waiting time of pedestrians at an intersection and the three main factors of pedestrian violations. In this study, 13 intersections and 1075 violations sample were collected in Suzhou China, which had different maximum waiting times. The validation would use the complementary video data. There are several factors, which have great influence on the proportion of pedestrian violations, such as the age, sex, arrive time, red phase, conflicting traffic volume and the length of volume crosswalks. Additionally, The significance of pedestrian maximum waiting time was highlighted in the end. For the purpose of reducing dangerous pedestrian behaviors at signalized intersections, minimizing waiting times is supposed to be one proper way.
Food security in India and States: key challenges and policy option Premier Publishers
Condition of food security in India is gloomy and is similar to African countries. Both the supply side and demand side factors have their roles in the present condition of food security and undernourishment in India. This study supports that if agriculture production grows; increasing food prices has less bearing on low food security. Problem of food security in India is very much related to low demand. If demand of people can be improved, food security can be achieved. Disaggregated trend of food security shows that problem of food insecurity is high in poor states. Considering disaggregated level of food security, government has passed Food Security Bill in India. Our analysis points out that food security cannot be achieved in India without improving the level of overall agriculture production. Improving agricultural production is essential for ensuring long term food security and promoting poverty reduction. State level condition of storage capacity of food grains also points out that how a state like Bihar with low storage facility will manage to implement this Bill. Without identifying role of market, success of Food Security Bill and reduction of poverty is distant dream.
Effect of climate change on maize production in Nigeria Premier Publishers
The study was conducted in Nigeria. The objective of the study was to examine the effect of climate change on maize. The data for the study was obtained from secondary sources. The result shows that the average rainfall and temperature statistics were 1288.311mm and 31.7173oC in Nigeria within the period under study. The average maize output within the period was 4.84mt while hectarage and yield were 3.36mha and 1.44t/ha respectively. The result from the study equally shows that the area cultivated and productivity of maize increased as temperature and rainfall increased. However, there were deceleration of output and area of maize cultivated which may have been induced by the increase in temperature and rainfall over these period. Maize productivity accelerated. The climate change variables show significant effect on maize production with the period under review. Based on findings from the study, it is recommended that since temperature and rainfall are relatively beyond the control of farmers, there should be proper enlightenment of the farmers on the proper climate adaptation practices to employ in order to minimize the adverse effects of climate change on their output.
Effects of different irrigation and fertilization treatments on growth and yi...Premier Publishers
The experiment was implemented during the autumn season 2013, to study the effect of three methods of irrigation and fertilization on the development and yield of the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cv Rivera. Two methods of drip irrigation (putting the pipe at the bottom and at the top of furrows) and furrow irrigation with three types of fertilizers (chemical fertilizer at rate of 300 kg urea, 180 kg superphosphate triple, 240 kg potassium sulphate per hectare) and organic fertilizer at 30 kg.100 m2 -1 with half amount of the chemical fertilizers mentioned. The organic fertilizers were added in two ways: by scattering dry fertilizer and irrigation with fertilizer solution near plant roots. Results showed that the highest total water content of leaves was 86.665%, leaf area 2285 cm2, roots dry weight 13.60 g., average tuber weight 69.56 g., and the percentage of dry matter in tubers 19.26% was produced from applying organic fertilizer by irrigation, whereas the highest total tubers yield was 16.345 tons.ha-1 and water use efficiency 9.855 kg. ha-1 resulted from organic fertilizer by scattering method, also the treatment of drip irrigation by putting the pipe at the top of the furrows was superior in all studied parameters except the average tuber weight and total soluble solids compared with the other two treatments.
Correlation and path coefficients analysis studies among yield and yield rela...Premier Publishers
The study was carried out to estimate correlation coefficients among grain yield and yield related traits and work out direct and indirect effects of yield-related traits on grain yield using path- coefficient analysis. Sixty-six F1 crosses and two standard checks were evaluated at Mechara, Ethiopia. The analysis of variance revealed that mean squares due to entries and crosses were highly significant (p<0.01)><0.05) for most traits studied, indicating the existence of variability among the materials evaluated, which could be exploited for the improvement of respective traits. Grain yield showed positive and highly significant correlations with most traits at phenotypic and genotypic levels. Ear diameter and number of kernels per row exerted positive direct effect and also had positive association with grain yield. These traits could be used as a reliable indicator in indirect selection for higher grain yield since their direct effect and association with grain yield were positive at phenotypic and genotypic levels. Traits having strong relationship with grain yield can be used for indirect selection to improve grain yield because grain yield can be simultaneously improved along with the traits for which it showed strong relationship.
The ultimate end of man in his life is pleasure; it is the ultimate end of God as well who likes to see his creations worship Him. So, man has varieties of causes for pleasure; one of them is his spiritual pleasure which could be achieved through the medium of poetry. I believe that poetry purges man’s heart in the tumult, glamor and gloom of life. Poetry makes man soar in the space of idealism, pushes him to the edge of scholarship, maturity and reasonability and above all enroots in him kindness and humanity, for he or she inhales how to be a human through the lines of instructive poetry; the poetry that springs from the core of experience; the experience of the smart.
Therefore, the readers of this book find their different quests of their targets; they find the light of their being in life throughout the rhymed poems and lines of this book, they come to the conclusion of what is the value of their being in this life- what they should follow and not to follow; what enlightens their routes of life through its many gloomy ways in which man finds himself arbitrary and compulsory living his/her life with no out let.
Readers I avow to your respectful persons that you are the ones who decide my success or failure. In the meantime, I do here make sure to present your respectful person with deep comprehensive material drawn, as I believe, from the universal body of all arts and sciences, I intended wholly for your service and instruction.
Integrated ring resonator system analysis to Optimize the soliton transmissionPremier Publishers
The chaotic signals can be generated within the microring resonator (MRR) system when the Gaussian pulse with input power of 120 mW is inserted into the system. Generation of chaotic signals respect to the ring's radius has been studied. The coupling coefficient affects the output power significantly, thus in order to generate signals with higher output power, the smaller coupling coefficient can be used. Here the output power of the system is characterized with respect to the different coupling coefficients of the system.A series of MRRs connected to an add/drop filter system in order to anaylize the soliton signals. The nonlinear refractive index of the MRR is n2=2.2 x 10-17 m2/W. The capacity of the output signals can be increased through generation of peaks with smaller full width at half maximum (FWHM). Here, we generate and characterize the ultra-short optical soliton pulses respect to the ring's radius and coupling coefficients variation of the system. As result, soliton pulses with FWHM and free spectral range (FSR) of 50 pm and 1440 pm are generated.
Commuters’ Perception of Legibility and Complexity with Respect to Path Choic...drboon
The effect of environmental factors on walking behavior needs to be considered based on the purpose of walking trip; whether walking for transport or walking for recreational purposes. Since everybody walks on his/her daily transport, studying walking behavior of those who walk for transport would contribute to maintain the minimum rate of physical activity. Commuters are the major group of those who walk for transport. It was found that the path choice of pedestrians can be considered to examine the effects of environmental factors on walking behavior. Introducing two environmental factors of perceived legibility and perceived complexity, it is demonstrated that the theoretical and empirical relationship between these factors and walking behavior as well as the path choice criteria, leads to define these two factors in accordance with commuter’s specifications. Accordingly, both perceived legibility and perceived complexity are two important path choice criteria of commuters in CBD of Kuala Lumpur.
THE IMPACT OF WAITING TIME ON PEDESTRIAN VIOLATIONS AT SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS civej
The phenomenon that pedestrian violates traffic signals at intersections and crosses with danger is universal. This study aims to find out the influence of the waiting time of pedestrians at an intersection and the three main factors of pedestrian violations. In this study, 13 intersections and 1075 violations sample were collected in Suzhou China, which had different maximum waiting times. The validation would use the complementary video data. There are several factors, which have great influence on the proportion of pedestrian violations, such as the age, sex, arrive time, red phase, conflicting traffic volume and the length of volume crosswalks. Additionally, The significance of pedestrian maximum waiting time was highlighted in the end. For the purpose of reducing dangerous pedestrian behaviors at signalized intersections, minimizing waiting times is supposed to be one proper way.
Food security in India and States: key challenges and policy option Premier Publishers
Condition of food security in India is gloomy and is similar to African countries. Both the supply side and demand side factors have their roles in the present condition of food security and undernourishment in India. This study supports that if agriculture production grows; increasing food prices has less bearing on low food security. Problem of food security in India is very much related to low demand. If demand of people can be improved, food security can be achieved. Disaggregated trend of food security shows that problem of food insecurity is high in poor states. Considering disaggregated level of food security, government has passed Food Security Bill in India. Our analysis points out that food security cannot be achieved in India without improving the level of overall agriculture production. Improving agricultural production is essential for ensuring long term food security and promoting poverty reduction. State level condition of storage capacity of food grains also points out that how a state like Bihar with low storage facility will manage to implement this Bill. Without identifying role of market, success of Food Security Bill and reduction of poverty is distant dream.
Effect of climate change on maize production in Nigeria Premier Publishers
The study was conducted in Nigeria. The objective of the study was to examine the effect of climate change on maize. The data for the study was obtained from secondary sources. The result shows that the average rainfall and temperature statistics were 1288.311mm and 31.7173oC in Nigeria within the period under study. The average maize output within the period was 4.84mt while hectarage and yield were 3.36mha and 1.44t/ha respectively. The result from the study equally shows that the area cultivated and productivity of maize increased as temperature and rainfall increased. However, there were deceleration of output and area of maize cultivated which may have been induced by the increase in temperature and rainfall over these period. Maize productivity accelerated. The climate change variables show significant effect on maize production with the period under review. Based on findings from the study, it is recommended that since temperature and rainfall are relatively beyond the control of farmers, there should be proper enlightenment of the farmers on the proper climate adaptation practices to employ in order to minimize the adverse effects of climate change on their output.
Effects of different irrigation and fertilization treatments on growth and yi...Premier Publishers
The experiment was implemented during the autumn season 2013, to study the effect of three methods of irrigation and fertilization on the development and yield of the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cv Rivera. Two methods of drip irrigation (putting the pipe at the bottom and at the top of furrows) and furrow irrigation with three types of fertilizers (chemical fertilizer at rate of 300 kg urea, 180 kg superphosphate triple, 240 kg potassium sulphate per hectare) and organic fertilizer at 30 kg.100 m2 -1 with half amount of the chemical fertilizers mentioned. The organic fertilizers were added in two ways: by scattering dry fertilizer and irrigation with fertilizer solution near plant roots. Results showed that the highest total water content of leaves was 86.665%, leaf area 2285 cm2, roots dry weight 13.60 g., average tuber weight 69.56 g., and the percentage of dry matter in tubers 19.26% was produced from applying organic fertilizer by irrigation, whereas the highest total tubers yield was 16.345 tons.ha-1 and water use efficiency 9.855 kg. ha-1 resulted from organic fertilizer by scattering method, also the treatment of drip irrigation by putting the pipe at the top of the furrows was superior in all studied parameters except the average tuber weight and total soluble solids compared with the other two treatments.
Correlation and path coefficients analysis studies among yield and yield rela...Premier Publishers
The study was carried out to estimate correlation coefficients among grain yield and yield related traits and work out direct and indirect effects of yield-related traits on grain yield using path- coefficient analysis. Sixty-six F1 crosses and two standard checks were evaluated at Mechara, Ethiopia. The analysis of variance revealed that mean squares due to entries and crosses were highly significant (p<0.01)><0.05) for most traits studied, indicating the existence of variability among the materials evaluated, which could be exploited for the improvement of respective traits. Grain yield showed positive and highly significant correlations with most traits at phenotypic and genotypic levels. Ear diameter and number of kernels per row exerted positive direct effect and also had positive association with grain yield. These traits could be used as a reliable indicator in indirect selection for higher grain yield since their direct effect and association with grain yield were positive at phenotypic and genotypic levels. Traits having strong relationship with grain yield can be used for indirect selection to improve grain yield because grain yield can be simultaneously improved along with the traits for which it showed strong relationship.
The ultimate end of man in his life is pleasure; it is the ultimate end of God as well who likes to see his creations worship Him. So, man has varieties of causes for pleasure; one of them is his spiritual pleasure which could be achieved through the medium of poetry. I believe that poetry purges man’s heart in the tumult, glamor and gloom of life. Poetry makes man soar in the space of idealism, pushes him to the edge of scholarship, maturity and reasonability and above all enroots in him kindness and humanity, for he or she inhales how to be a human through the lines of instructive poetry; the poetry that springs from the core of experience; the experience of the smart.
Therefore, the readers of this book find their different quests of their targets; they find the light of their being in life throughout the rhymed poems and lines of this book, they come to the conclusion of what is the value of their being in this life- what they should follow and not to follow; what enlightens their routes of life through its many gloomy ways in which man finds himself arbitrary and compulsory living his/her life with no out let.
Readers I avow to your respectful persons that you are the ones who decide my success or failure. In the meantime, I do here make sure to present your respectful person with deep comprehensive material drawn, as I believe, from the universal body of all arts and sciences, I intended wholly for your service and instruction.
Integrated ring resonator system analysis to Optimize the soliton transmissionPremier Publishers
The chaotic signals can be generated within the microring resonator (MRR) system when the Gaussian pulse with input power of 120 mW is inserted into the system. Generation of chaotic signals respect to the ring's radius has been studied. The coupling coefficient affects the output power significantly, thus in order to generate signals with higher output power, the smaller coupling coefficient can be used. Here the output power of the system is characterized with respect to the different coupling coefficients of the system.A series of MRRs connected to an add/drop filter system in order to anaylize the soliton signals. The nonlinear refractive index of the MRR is n2=2.2 x 10-17 m2/W. The capacity of the output signals can be increased through generation of peaks with smaller full width at half maximum (FWHM). Here, we generate and characterize the ultra-short optical soliton pulses respect to the ring's radius and coupling coefficients variation of the system. As result, soliton pulses with FWHM and free spectral range (FSR) of 50 pm and 1440 pm are generated.
Study of municipal solid waste of Delhi for energy contentPremier Publishers
Solid waste management has become a global problem. Littering of wastes on streets not only causes inconvenience and aesthetic problems, but also has a lot of impact on human health Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) is highly neglected aspect of Delhi. At present approximately 6000 tons of waste is generated per day which is disposed in the three existing landfills. The three landfills are almost saturated therefore some alternate method of disposal should be designed. The present paper discusses the energy content of MSW of Delhi so that some suitable technology can be adopted for the disposal of wastes. Generally evaluation of the heating value of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is done experimentally by using bomb calorimeter and theoretically by using Dulong’s equation. In this paper, regression analysis is used to develop a predictive model of the energy content for MSW of Delhi.
Livestock Policies and its Impact on India and Bihar, StatePremier Publishers
In an economy like Bihar, dependence of population on livestock as an alternative source of income is significant. Acceleration in the availability of livestock to marginal and small farmers can offer significant opportunities for household income augmentation and employment generation in Bihar. In this context, an analysis of performance of livestock sector in Bihar has been carried out. The growth of livestock sector has been found slower in the Bihar than at the national level. The share of Bihar in India's livestock sector income has not changed significantly. Besides, low milk productivity, decline in the Bihar’s share in India's egg and meat sector income is a major factor responsible for insignificant changes in livestock sector of Bihar. Several demand and supply side factors have been identified for the above trends. Availability of health infrastructure, grazing land and immunisation are significantly affecting livestock across the districts of Bihar. The study has also shown policy initiatives for the improvement of livestock sector resources and outcomes of Bihar.
A model for non-circular orbits derived from a two-step linearisation of the ...Premier Publishers
In the Solar System most orbits are circular, but there are some exceptions. The paper addresses results from a two-step linearisation of the Kepler laws, to model non-circular orbits, at Newtonian gravity and other interactions with adjacent bodies. The orbit will then be characterised by a generalised eccentricity and a secondary frequency denoted L-frequency, ωL (and considered proportional to the angular velocity). The path will be that of a circle, superimposed by small vibrations with the L-frequency. Hereby, the amplitude corresponds to an eccentricity, such that the radius varies, with time. When the ratio between the L-frequency and angular velocity is a non-integer, ‘perihelion’ moves. Bounds are derived and resulting orbits are generated and visualized.
For the integer ratio 2, results are compared with an ellipsoidal, and a tidal wave. For a non-integer ratio, the orbit is related to data for Mercury. Methods for detecting and measuring the secondary frequency are discussed, in terms of transfer orbits in Spaceflight dynamics.
Identification, domestication and conservation of plants used in managing rum...Premier Publishers
Field studies were conducted to investigate the medicinal plants through identification, collection and domestication of plants in Southwestern, Nigeria.
Semi-structured Questionnaires, personal interview, group consensus and review of available records showed that 52 botanicals belonging to 29 families were used in treating different ailments affecting ruminant animals in the study area. It was observed that 22 of the botanicals were described as being abundant. Eight out of all the botanicals were endangered and domesticated. The initial growth of the domesticated plants shows that the plants have relatively slow growth of survival, thus conservation measures were proposed. Various sources at which the identified plants could be derived were ranging from forest area, common area, household farm, household area while some were purchased. The type of plants found in a location is dependent on the geographical location. Thus, 38.9 % of the plants species were found at the primary source and this form the highest among the various sources. It was also discovered that the medicinal plants were used for other purposes such as erosion control, shade, wind breaker, boundary demarcation, animal fodder among others.
Proverbs and conflict management in Africa: A study of selected Yoruba prover...Premier Publishers
This paper examines the role of proverbs and their use in conflict management and in enhancing peaceful human co-existence. This is achieved through a content analysis of twenty-four (24) randomly selected Yoruba proverbs, and proverbial expressions, with particular reference to the themes of warning, cooperation, and diversity. The paper argues that proverbs are useful in conflict management, and conflict resolution, and in making people have a peace-loving frame of mind. The paper concludes that proverbs and proverbial expressions are, indeed, vital in relationship management. It avers that anybody with a good understanding of proverbs and their implications for peaceful coexistence would appreciate conflicts as an intricate part of existence and harmonious living; and such person(s) would therefore avoid actions and inactions that would promote violence.
Limit radius in a binary system: Cosmological and Post-Newtonian effectsPremier Publishers
Frequently, in dynamical astronomy, the quantitative effect of the large-scale cosmological expansion on local systems is studied in the light of Newtonian approach. We, however, analyze the influence of cosmological expansion on binary systems (galaxies or black holes) in the light of Post-Newtonian approximation. Furthermore, we obtain the new radius at which the acceleration due to the cosmological expansion has the same magnitude as the two-body attraction, and the classical limit radius is obtained when the Schwarzschild radius approaches zero (for example, the Solar System).
Studies on the viabile bacteria of commercial probiotic products available in...Premier Publishers
The viability of bacteria in seven probiotic products for animal production available in Bangladesh namely Bactosac, Micro guard, Probac, Poultry Star sol, Gutpro, Clostat 11 and Rumilac were tested. All the products were purchased in local markets. The bacteria in the probiotic product were grown anaerobically using Luria-Bertani (LB) broth and incubated for 13 h at 37° C. The viable bacteria of commercial probiotics ranged between 6.8 ×102 to 2.0×104 cfu/g. The highest values (2.0×104 cfu/g) were found in Microguard and Probac and the lowest value (6.8 ×102) was found in Gutpro. However, viable cells in Microguard and Probac were found lower by four and three logarithmic cycles, respectively, than manufacturer statements (5.0×108/g and 3.0×107/g). The viable cells found in the probiotic products were not accepted as the minimum level of 106 cfu/ml or cfu/g. The results of the present study concluded that viability of bacteria in commercial probiotic products were not found at a minimum level and therefore may not be sufficient for colonization of the animal gut.
Complete migration of a biliary stent into the gallbladderPremier Publishers
Biliary stents become very important tools in the hands of gastro-intestinal endoscopists. They solve a lot of problems, but they are not free of copmlications. During insertion of a biliary stent in a sixty-five-year-old female patient it broke. It broke in a place which makes its retrieval very difficult. Trial of retrieval led to pushing of the stent deep into the common bile duct. It lies just below the mouth of the cystic duct, which should have made a warning for a rare migration. Later the stent was seen in the vicinity of the gallbladder during ERCP. Cholecystectomy was done and the stent was found inside it.
Motivated by presenting mathematics visually and interestingly to common people based on calculus and its extension, parametric curves are explored here to have two and three dimensional objects such that these objects can be used for demonstrating mathematics.
Epicycloid, hypocycloid are particular curves that are implemented in MATLAB programs and the motifs are presented here. The obtained curves are considered to be domains for complex mappings to have new variation of Figures and objects. Additionally Voronoi mapping is also implemented to some parametric curves and some resulting complex mappings.
Some obtained 3 dimensional objects are considered as flowers and animals inspiring to be mathematical ornaments of hypocycloid dance which is also illustrated here.
Financial analysis of electricity generation from municipal solid waste: a ca...Premier Publishers
The Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) is amongst the largest municipal bodies in the world catering to an estimated population of 17 million citizens by providing civic services. Ghazipur is one of the three existing landfills of Delhi that has come up with a Waste to Energy (WtE) plant processing and disposing off the municipal waste. The plant produces RDF that will result in power generation .This plant will be a source of revenue and also earn carbon credits. This paper deals with the techno economic analysis of the plant to assess its viability on a commercial scale.
Social Learning in Humans and Nonhuman Animals: Theoretical and Empirical Dis...Francys Subiaul
In this special issue, we present a synthesis of work that consolidates what is currently known and provides a platform for
future research. Consequently, we include both new empirical
studies and novel theoretical proposals describing work with both human children and adults and a range of nonhuman animals. In this introduction, we describe the background of this special issue and provide a context for each of the eight articles it contains. We hope such introduction will not only help the reader synthesize the interdisciplinary views that characterize this broad field, but also stimulate development of new methods, concepts, and data.
Studies about mobility and mobile interaction help researchers and practitioners in the social sciences to make sense of emergent working and living practices in an increasingly mobilised world. This paper aims to present a reflective analysis of the recommended methodological approaches for mobile studies based on three case studies. Following mobile workers across the different dimensions of time and space is a major challenge researchers have to face. The paper discusses these challenges, and highlights areas of interest for researchers interested in the study of mobility and mobile interaction.
The Impact of Waiting Time on Pedestrian Violations at Signalized Intersectionscivejjour
The phenomenon that pedestrian violates traffic signals at intersections and crosses with danger is
universal. This study aims to find out the influence of the waiting time of pedestrians at an intersection and
the three main factors of pedestrian violations. In this study, 13 intersections and 1075 violations sample
were collected in Suzhou China, which had different maximum waiting times. The validation would use the
complementary video data. There are several factors, which have great influence on the proportion of
pedestrian violations, such as the age, sex, arrive time, red phase, conflicting traffic volume and the length
of volume crosswalks. Additionally, The significance of pedestrian maximum waiting time was highlighted
in the end. For the purpose of reducing dangerous pedestrian behaviors at signalized intersections,
minimizing waiting times is supposed to be one proper way.
CURRENT ISSUES - PERSPECTIVES AND REVIEWSTribute to Tinber.docxdorishigh
CURRENT ISSUES - PERSPECTIVES AND REVIEWS
Tribute to Tinbergen: Public Engagement in Ethology
Julie Hecht* & Caren B. Cooper†
* Doctoral Program in Psychology, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
† Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA
(Invited Review)
Correspondence
Julie Hecht, Department of Psychology,
Hunter College and The Graduate Center,
City University of New York, 695 Park
Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Received: October 4, 2013
Initial acceptance: October 19, 2013
Final acceptance: November 25, 2013
(M. Hauber)
doi: 10.1111/eth.12199
Keywords: citizen science, data quality,
animal behavior, informal science education
Abstract
Public engagement in research, called citizen science, has led to advances
in a range of fields like astronomy, ornithology, and public health. While
volunteers have been making and sharing observations according to pro-
tocols set by researchers in numerous disciplines, citizen science practices
are less common in the field of animal behavior. We consider how citizen
science might be used to address animal behavior questions at Tinbergen’s
four levels of analysis. We briefly review resources and methods for
addressing technical issues surrounding volunteer participation—such as
data quality—so that citizen science can make long-standing contributions
to the field of animal behavior.
Introduction
‘Citizen science’ describes the various ways that mem-
bers of the public participate in genuine scientific
research (Cooper et al. 2007a; Silvertown 2009; Shirk
et al. 2012). Many citizen science projects arise from
communities with specific concerns (such as long-
term environmental monitoring), and some are
initiated by scientists to address specific research
objectives. Other projects have additional goals to
increase science literacy (Bonney et al. 2009a).
Research via public engagement is possible because
people enjoy making natural history observations and
sharing these observations with professionals and
peers. In addition, Web 2.0 and mobile technologies
facilitate mass participation. Consequently, citizen
science projects have arisen in a myriad of disciplines,
including ecology, phenology, macroecology, public
health, natural resource management, hydrology,
urban planning, meteorology, math, volcanology, and
various taxon-specific fields such as entomology,
ornithology, and herpetology. In recent years, citizen
science has enabled substantial contributions to the
fields of astronomy (Lintott et al. 2008), medicine
(Khatib et al. 2011a,b), and climate change (Morisette
et al. 2009).
Currently, the field of animal behavior is under-
represented among citizen science projects. Animal
behavior research integrates diverse methodological
approaches to investigate a wide array of scientific
questions about the behavior of wild and domesti-
cated animals in natural and captive settings. Public
o.
Tajah Williams Comment by LT Above your name here, you.docxdeanmtaylor1545
Tajah Williams Comment by LT: Above your name here, you need to put the title of your paper. Comment by LT: You need to include a running head above—see the Purdue OWL APA site for help.
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/general_format.html
Albertus Magnus School College
Professor L. Tronsky
PY-325-1
Exp. Meth.& Research Design
12-2-2019
Introduction Comment by LT: Rather than putting “Introduction” here, you need to put the title of your paper.
This is a practical experiment that seeks to determine if people can be influenced by a sign and change their routine behaviors. Buck (2019) conducted a sign-influencing behavior study among concerning gender roles and found out that men are more willing to help a woman who appears to be attractive than women would helpare. Yoder, Hogue, Newman, Metz, and LaVigne et al. (2002) also conducted an experiment on door holding among genders, and it emerged that there was a strong pattern of male holding doors for female during dating and not in real every-day life. This displayed a behavioral subtlety among men because they are sexually attracted to womenthe female. Nettle, Nott, & and Bateson (2012) decided to put a sign up to scare away the ever- increasing bicycle theft in the community. The findings were that it was extremely cheap and simple to put a sign stating that there was a surveillance watching the bicycle thieves even when it was not actually there because it greatly led to the reduced theft of bicycles within the locations. This was a benefit that resulted from the engagement of psychology of the thieves to think that they were being watched when they were not. Comment by LT: Your paper should be doubled spaced. Comment by LT: When you are reviewing previous research, you need to include a bit more detail than you have. You should mention the purpose, participants, very briefly describe the methods, and then present the results/conclusions.
Ford & Torok (2008) evaluated whether a signage would influence the behavior of the people to use the stairway instead of an elevator. The findings of the authors were that the sign motivating people to use the stairway led to an 18.6% increase in the use of stairway. Larsen (1974) came up withcreated a study of conformity in the Asch experiment to demonstrate the tendency of people to conform to when exposed to social pressure of the unidentified majority. It emerged that people tend to conform to the majority pressure in the society because 64% of the participants conformed to what they deemed a majority pressure. Comment by LT: You need another paragraph that connects the previous research to why you decided to conduct your study (the rationale). Then, you need to (very) briefly provide an overview of your study, and finally, you need to provide your hypothesis (prediction) and why you are expecting those results.
Method
Participants Comment by LT: In this section you should summar.
Analyzing the indicators walkability of cities, in order to improving urban ...IJMER
Urban design is a technique and knowledge seeking to organize and improve urban qualities and increase the quality of citizenship life. Based on the perspectives and objectives of urban design, the dominant intention in all urbanism activities is to reach high humanistic and social dimensions. In fact, what give meaning to a city are the social aspects raised in recent urban activities, in addition to the physical and visual body of it. Over the past decade the quality of the walking environment has become
a significant factor in transportation planning and design in developed countries. It is argued that the pedestrians’ environment has been ignored in favors of automobile. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of walkability on property values and investment returns. Research method is descriptive. The method of collected data is field. Also, were used questionnaire tools in order to
collecting data. On the other hand, was referred to municipality 9 region due to, studied area was located in this urban region. In continue, was used SWOT technique in order to analyzing questionnaire. At finally, proposed
strategies in order to improving urban space qualif
Urban Land-use and Traffic Congestion: Mapping the Interaction
1 * Ph.D. Candidate James Kanyepe Image result for research orcid, 2 Prof. Dr. Marian Tukuta Image result for research orcid, 3 Prof. Dr. Innocent Chirisa Image result for research orcid
1 and 2 Department of Supply Chain Management, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe
3 Department of Demography Settlement & Development, University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
E-mail 1: jameskanyepe@gmail.com, E-mail 2: paidamoyo2016@gmail.com
E-mail 3: innocent.chirisa@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO:
Article History:
Received 25 October 2020
Accepted 15 December 2020
Available online 19 December 2020
Keywords:
Land-Use;
Peak Hour;
Traffic Congestion;
Transport;
Travel Patterns;
Travel Behavior.
ABSTRACT D:\My Journal\papers\Vol 4 ISSUE 1\1 senem sadri Turkey\check for updates2020ijcua.tif
The interaction between transport, land-uses and travel patterns produce diverse transportation problems in urban cities with traffic congestion as the most visible manifestation. Traffic congestion is a frequent phenomenon in most cities around the globe. This paper reviews the interaction between land-use traffic congestion through published literature. The objective of this study is to encourage and provide researchers with future research directions in land-use and traffic congestion. For this purpose, a systematic review was performed analysing 45 articles from the year 2010 to 2020 using a descriptive approach. Subsequently, the results of the study show that although the interaction between land-use and traffic congestion has gained currency in developed countries far less is known on this subject in developing parts of the world, though new evidence is steadily accumulating. Consequently, limitations of this work are presented, opportunities are identified for future lines of research. Finally, the conclusion confirms the need for further research addressing the methodological concerns.
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2021), 5(1), 77-84.
Study of municipal solid waste of Delhi for energy contentPremier Publishers
Solid waste management has become a global problem. Littering of wastes on streets not only causes inconvenience and aesthetic problems, but also has a lot of impact on human health Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) is highly neglected aspect of Delhi. At present approximately 6000 tons of waste is generated per day which is disposed in the three existing landfills. The three landfills are almost saturated therefore some alternate method of disposal should be designed. The present paper discusses the energy content of MSW of Delhi so that some suitable technology can be adopted for the disposal of wastes. Generally evaluation of the heating value of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is done experimentally by using bomb calorimeter and theoretically by using Dulong’s equation. In this paper, regression analysis is used to develop a predictive model of the energy content for MSW of Delhi.
Livestock Policies and its Impact on India and Bihar, StatePremier Publishers
In an economy like Bihar, dependence of population on livestock as an alternative source of income is significant. Acceleration in the availability of livestock to marginal and small farmers can offer significant opportunities for household income augmentation and employment generation in Bihar. In this context, an analysis of performance of livestock sector in Bihar has been carried out. The growth of livestock sector has been found slower in the Bihar than at the national level. The share of Bihar in India's livestock sector income has not changed significantly. Besides, low milk productivity, decline in the Bihar’s share in India's egg and meat sector income is a major factor responsible for insignificant changes in livestock sector of Bihar. Several demand and supply side factors have been identified for the above trends. Availability of health infrastructure, grazing land and immunisation are significantly affecting livestock across the districts of Bihar. The study has also shown policy initiatives for the improvement of livestock sector resources and outcomes of Bihar.
A model for non-circular orbits derived from a two-step linearisation of the ...Premier Publishers
In the Solar System most orbits are circular, but there are some exceptions. The paper addresses results from a two-step linearisation of the Kepler laws, to model non-circular orbits, at Newtonian gravity and other interactions with adjacent bodies. The orbit will then be characterised by a generalised eccentricity and a secondary frequency denoted L-frequency, ωL (and considered proportional to the angular velocity). The path will be that of a circle, superimposed by small vibrations with the L-frequency. Hereby, the amplitude corresponds to an eccentricity, such that the radius varies, with time. When the ratio between the L-frequency and angular velocity is a non-integer, ‘perihelion’ moves. Bounds are derived and resulting orbits are generated and visualized.
For the integer ratio 2, results are compared with an ellipsoidal, and a tidal wave. For a non-integer ratio, the orbit is related to data for Mercury. Methods for detecting and measuring the secondary frequency are discussed, in terms of transfer orbits in Spaceflight dynamics.
Identification, domestication and conservation of plants used in managing rum...Premier Publishers
Field studies were conducted to investigate the medicinal plants through identification, collection and domestication of plants in Southwestern, Nigeria.
Semi-structured Questionnaires, personal interview, group consensus and review of available records showed that 52 botanicals belonging to 29 families were used in treating different ailments affecting ruminant animals in the study area. It was observed that 22 of the botanicals were described as being abundant. Eight out of all the botanicals were endangered and domesticated. The initial growth of the domesticated plants shows that the plants have relatively slow growth of survival, thus conservation measures were proposed. Various sources at which the identified plants could be derived were ranging from forest area, common area, household farm, household area while some were purchased. The type of plants found in a location is dependent on the geographical location. Thus, 38.9 % of the plants species were found at the primary source and this form the highest among the various sources. It was also discovered that the medicinal plants were used for other purposes such as erosion control, shade, wind breaker, boundary demarcation, animal fodder among others.
Proverbs and conflict management in Africa: A study of selected Yoruba prover...Premier Publishers
This paper examines the role of proverbs and their use in conflict management and in enhancing peaceful human co-existence. This is achieved through a content analysis of twenty-four (24) randomly selected Yoruba proverbs, and proverbial expressions, with particular reference to the themes of warning, cooperation, and diversity. The paper argues that proverbs are useful in conflict management, and conflict resolution, and in making people have a peace-loving frame of mind. The paper concludes that proverbs and proverbial expressions are, indeed, vital in relationship management. It avers that anybody with a good understanding of proverbs and their implications for peaceful coexistence would appreciate conflicts as an intricate part of existence and harmonious living; and such person(s) would therefore avoid actions and inactions that would promote violence.
Limit radius in a binary system: Cosmological and Post-Newtonian effectsPremier Publishers
Frequently, in dynamical astronomy, the quantitative effect of the large-scale cosmological expansion on local systems is studied in the light of Newtonian approach. We, however, analyze the influence of cosmological expansion on binary systems (galaxies or black holes) in the light of Post-Newtonian approximation. Furthermore, we obtain the new radius at which the acceleration due to the cosmological expansion has the same magnitude as the two-body attraction, and the classical limit radius is obtained when the Schwarzschild radius approaches zero (for example, the Solar System).
Studies on the viabile bacteria of commercial probiotic products available in...Premier Publishers
The viability of bacteria in seven probiotic products for animal production available in Bangladesh namely Bactosac, Micro guard, Probac, Poultry Star sol, Gutpro, Clostat 11 and Rumilac were tested. All the products were purchased in local markets. The bacteria in the probiotic product were grown anaerobically using Luria-Bertani (LB) broth and incubated for 13 h at 37° C. The viable bacteria of commercial probiotics ranged between 6.8 ×102 to 2.0×104 cfu/g. The highest values (2.0×104 cfu/g) were found in Microguard and Probac and the lowest value (6.8 ×102) was found in Gutpro. However, viable cells in Microguard and Probac were found lower by four and three logarithmic cycles, respectively, than manufacturer statements (5.0×108/g and 3.0×107/g). The viable cells found in the probiotic products were not accepted as the minimum level of 106 cfu/ml or cfu/g. The results of the present study concluded that viability of bacteria in commercial probiotic products were not found at a minimum level and therefore may not be sufficient for colonization of the animal gut.
Complete migration of a biliary stent into the gallbladderPremier Publishers
Biliary stents become very important tools in the hands of gastro-intestinal endoscopists. They solve a lot of problems, but they are not free of copmlications. During insertion of a biliary stent in a sixty-five-year-old female patient it broke. It broke in a place which makes its retrieval very difficult. Trial of retrieval led to pushing of the stent deep into the common bile duct. It lies just below the mouth of the cystic duct, which should have made a warning for a rare migration. Later the stent was seen in the vicinity of the gallbladder during ERCP. Cholecystectomy was done and the stent was found inside it.
Motivated by presenting mathematics visually and interestingly to common people based on calculus and its extension, parametric curves are explored here to have two and three dimensional objects such that these objects can be used for demonstrating mathematics.
Epicycloid, hypocycloid are particular curves that are implemented in MATLAB programs and the motifs are presented here. The obtained curves are considered to be domains for complex mappings to have new variation of Figures and objects. Additionally Voronoi mapping is also implemented to some parametric curves and some resulting complex mappings.
Some obtained 3 dimensional objects are considered as flowers and animals inspiring to be mathematical ornaments of hypocycloid dance which is also illustrated here.
Financial analysis of electricity generation from municipal solid waste: a ca...Premier Publishers
The Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) is amongst the largest municipal bodies in the world catering to an estimated population of 17 million citizens by providing civic services. Ghazipur is one of the three existing landfills of Delhi that has come up with a Waste to Energy (WtE) plant processing and disposing off the municipal waste. The plant produces RDF that will result in power generation .This plant will be a source of revenue and also earn carbon credits. This paper deals with the techno economic analysis of the plant to assess its viability on a commercial scale.
Social Learning in Humans and Nonhuman Animals: Theoretical and Empirical Dis...Francys Subiaul
In this special issue, we present a synthesis of work that consolidates what is currently known and provides a platform for
future research. Consequently, we include both new empirical
studies and novel theoretical proposals describing work with both human children and adults and a range of nonhuman animals. In this introduction, we describe the background of this special issue and provide a context for each of the eight articles it contains. We hope such introduction will not only help the reader synthesize the interdisciplinary views that characterize this broad field, but also stimulate development of new methods, concepts, and data.
Studies about mobility and mobile interaction help researchers and practitioners in the social sciences to make sense of emergent working and living practices in an increasingly mobilised world. This paper aims to present a reflective analysis of the recommended methodological approaches for mobile studies based on three case studies. Following mobile workers across the different dimensions of time and space is a major challenge researchers have to face. The paper discusses these challenges, and highlights areas of interest for researchers interested in the study of mobility and mobile interaction.
The Impact of Waiting Time on Pedestrian Violations at Signalized Intersectionscivejjour
The phenomenon that pedestrian violates traffic signals at intersections and crosses with danger is
universal. This study aims to find out the influence of the waiting time of pedestrians at an intersection and
the three main factors of pedestrian violations. In this study, 13 intersections and 1075 violations sample
were collected in Suzhou China, which had different maximum waiting times. The validation would use the
complementary video data. There are several factors, which have great influence on the proportion of
pedestrian violations, such as the age, sex, arrive time, red phase, conflicting traffic volume and the length
of volume crosswalks. Additionally, The significance of pedestrian maximum waiting time was highlighted
in the end. For the purpose of reducing dangerous pedestrian behaviors at signalized intersections,
minimizing waiting times is supposed to be one proper way.
CURRENT ISSUES - PERSPECTIVES AND REVIEWSTribute to Tinber.docxdorishigh
CURRENT ISSUES - PERSPECTIVES AND REVIEWS
Tribute to Tinbergen: Public Engagement in Ethology
Julie Hecht* & Caren B. Cooper†
* Doctoral Program in Psychology, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
† Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA
(Invited Review)
Correspondence
Julie Hecht, Department of Psychology,
Hunter College and The Graduate Center,
City University of New York, 695 Park
Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Received: October 4, 2013
Initial acceptance: October 19, 2013
Final acceptance: November 25, 2013
(M. Hauber)
doi: 10.1111/eth.12199
Keywords: citizen science, data quality,
animal behavior, informal science education
Abstract
Public engagement in research, called citizen science, has led to advances
in a range of fields like astronomy, ornithology, and public health. While
volunteers have been making and sharing observations according to pro-
tocols set by researchers in numerous disciplines, citizen science practices
are less common in the field of animal behavior. We consider how citizen
science might be used to address animal behavior questions at Tinbergen’s
four levels of analysis. We briefly review resources and methods for
addressing technical issues surrounding volunteer participation—such as
data quality—so that citizen science can make long-standing contributions
to the field of animal behavior.
Introduction
‘Citizen science’ describes the various ways that mem-
bers of the public participate in genuine scientific
research (Cooper et al. 2007a; Silvertown 2009; Shirk
et al. 2012). Many citizen science projects arise from
communities with specific concerns (such as long-
term environmental monitoring), and some are
initiated by scientists to address specific research
objectives. Other projects have additional goals to
increase science literacy (Bonney et al. 2009a).
Research via public engagement is possible because
people enjoy making natural history observations and
sharing these observations with professionals and
peers. In addition, Web 2.0 and mobile technologies
facilitate mass participation. Consequently, citizen
science projects have arisen in a myriad of disciplines,
including ecology, phenology, macroecology, public
health, natural resource management, hydrology,
urban planning, meteorology, math, volcanology, and
various taxon-specific fields such as entomology,
ornithology, and herpetology. In recent years, citizen
science has enabled substantial contributions to the
fields of astronomy (Lintott et al. 2008), medicine
(Khatib et al. 2011a,b), and climate change (Morisette
et al. 2009).
Currently, the field of animal behavior is under-
represented among citizen science projects. Animal
behavior research integrates diverse methodological
approaches to investigate a wide array of scientific
questions about the behavior of wild and domesti-
cated animals in natural and captive settings. Public
o.
Tajah Williams Comment by LT Above your name here, you.docxdeanmtaylor1545
Tajah Williams Comment by LT: Above your name here, you need to put the title of your paper. Comment by LT: You need to include a running head above—see the Purdue OWL APA site for help.
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/general_format.html
Albertus Magnus School College
Professor L. Tronsky
PY-325-1
Exp. Meth.& Research Design
12-2-2019
Introduction Comment by LT: Rather than putting “Introduction” here, you need to put the title of your paper.
This is a practical experiment that seeks to determine if people can be influenced by a sign and change their routine behaviors. Buck (2019) conducted a sign-influencing behavior study among concerning gender roles and found out that men are more willing to help a woman who appears to be attractive than women would helpare. Yoder, Hogue, Newman, Metz, and LaVigne et al. (2002) also conducted an experiment on door holding among genders, and it emerged that there was a strong pattern of male holding doors for female during dating and not in real every-day life. This displayed a behavioral subtlety among men because they are sexually attracted to womenthe female. Nettle, Nott, & and Bateson (2012) decided to put a sign up to scare away the ever- increasing bicycle theft in the community. The findings were that it was extremely cheap and simple to put a sign stating that there was a surveillance watching the bicycle thieves even when it was not actually there because it greatly led to the reduced theft of bicycles within the locations. This was a benefit that resulted from the engagement of psychology of the thieves to think that they were being watched when they were not. Comment by LT: Your paper should be doubled spaced. Comment by LT: When you are reviewing previous research, you need to include a bit more detail than you have. You should mention the purpose, participants, very briefly describe the methods, and then present the results/conclusions.
Ford & Torok (2008) evaluated whether a signage would influence the behavior of the people to use the stairway instead of an elevator. The findings of the authors were that the sign motivating people to use the stairway led to an 18.6% increase in the use of stairway. Larsen (1974) came up withcreated a study of conformity in the Asch experiment to demonstrate the tendency of people to conform to when exposed to social pressure of the unidentified majority. It emerged that people tend to conform to the majority pressure in the society because 64% of the participants conformed to what they deemed a majority pressure. Comment by LT: You need another paragraph that connects the previous research to why you decided to conduct your study (the rationale). Then, you need to (very) briefly provide an overview of your study, and finally, you need to provide your hypothesis (prediction) and why you are expecting those results.
Method
Participants Comment by LT: In this section you should summar.
Analyzing the indicators walkability of cities, in order to improving urban ...IJMER
Urban design is a technique and knowledge seeking to organize and improve urban qualities and increase the quality of citizenship life. Based on the perspectives and objectives of urban design, the dominant intention in all urbanism activities is to reach high humanistic and social dimensions. In fact, what give meaning to a city are the social aspects raised in recent urban activities, in addition to the physical and visual body of it. Over the past decade the quality of the walking environment has become
a significant factor in transportation planning and design in developed countries. It is argued that the pedestrians’ environment has been ignored in favors of automobile. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of walkability on property values and investment returns. Research method is descriptive. The method of collected data is field. Also, were used questionnaire tools in order to
collecting data. On the other hand, was referred to municipality 9 region due to, studied area was located in this urban region. In continue, was used SWOT technique in order to analyzing questionnaire. At finally, proposed
strategies in order to improving urban space qualif
Urban Land-use and Traffic Congestion: Mapping the Interaction
1 * Ph.D. Candidate James Kanyepe Image result for research orcid, 2 Prof. Dr. Marian Tukuta Image result for research orcid, 3 Prof. Dr. Innocent Chirisa Image result for research orcid
1 and 2 Department of Supply Chain Management, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe
3 Department of Demography Settlement & Development, University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
E-mail 1: jameskanyepe@gmail.com, E-mail 2: paidamoyo2016@gmail.com
E-mail 3: innocent.chirisa@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO:
Article History:
Received 25 October 2020
Accepted 15 December 2020
Available online 19 December 2020
Keywords:
Land-Use;
Peak Hour;
Traffic Congestion;
Transport;
Travel Patterns;
Travel Behavior.
ABSTRACT D:\My Journal\papers\Vol 4 ISSUE 1\1 senem sadri Turkey\check for updates2020ijcua.tif
The interaction between transport, land-uses and travel patterns produce diverse transportation problems in urban cities with traffic congestion as the most visible manifestation. Traffic congestion is a frequent phenomenon in most cities around the globe. This paper reviews the interaction between land-use traffic congestion through published literature. The objective of this study is to encourage and provide researchers with future research directions in land-use and traffic congestion. For this purpose, a systematic review was performed analysing 45 articles from the year 2010 to 2020 using a descriptive approach. Subsequently, the results of the study show that although the interaction between land-use and traffic congestion has gained currency in developed countries far less is known on this subject in developing parts of the world, though new evidence is steadily accumulating. Consequently, limitations of this work are presented, opportunities are identified for future lines of research. Finally, the conclusion confirms the need for further research addressing the methodological concerns.
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2021), 5(1), 77-84.
Evaluation of Agro-morphological Performances of Hybrid Varieties of Chili Pe...Premier Publishers
In Benin, chilli pepper is a widely consumed as vegetable whose production requires the use of performant varieties. This work assessed, at Parakou and Malanville, the performance of six F1 hybrids of chilli including five imported (Laali, Laser, Nandi, Kranti, Nandita) and one local (De cayenne), in completely randomized block design at four replications and 15 plants per elementary plot. Agro-morphological data were collected and submitted to analysis of variance and factor analysis of mixed data. The results showed the effects of variety, location and their interactions were highly significant for most of the growth, earliness and yield traits. Imported hybrid varieties showed the best performances compared to the local one. Multivariate analysis revealed that 'De cayenne' was earlier, short in size, thin-stemmed, red fruits and less yielding (≈ 1 t.ha-1). The imported hybrids LaaliF1 and KrantiF1 were of strong vegetative vigor, more yielding (> 6 t.ha-1) by developing larger, long and hard fruits. Other hybrids showed intermediate performances. This study highlighted the importance of imported hybrids in improving yield and preservation of chili fruits. However, stability and adaptation analyses to local conditions are necessary for their adoption.
An Empirical Approach for the Variation in Capital Market Price Changes Premier Publishers
The chances of an investor in the stock market depends mainly on some certain decisions in respect to equilibrium prices, which is the condition of a system competing favorably and effectively. This paper considered a stochastic model which was latter transformed to non-linear ordinary differential equation where stock volatility was used as a key parameter. The analytical solution was obtained which determined the equilibrium prices. A theorem was developed and proved to show that the proposed mathematical model follows a normal distribution since it has a symmetric property. Finally, graphical results were presented and the effects of the relevant parameters were discussed.
Influence of Nitrogen and Spacing on Growth and Yield of Chia (Salvia hispani...Premier Publishers
Chia is an emerging cash crop in Kenya and its production is inhibited by lack of agronomic management information. A field experiment was conducted in February-June and May-August 2021, to determine the influence of nitrogen and spacing on growth and yield of Chia. A randomized complete block design with a split plot arrangement was used with four nitrogen rates as the main plots (0, 40, 80, 120 kg N ha-1) and three spacing (30 cm x 15 cm (s1), 30 cm x 30 cm (s2), 50 cm x 50 cm (s3)). Application of 120 kg N ha-1 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth and seed yield of Chia. Stem height, branches, stem diameter and leaves increased by 23-28%, 11-13%, 43-55% and 59-88% respectively. Spacing s3 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth. An increase of 27-74%, 36-45% and 73-107% was recorded in number of leaves, stem diameter and dry weight, respectively. Chia yield per plant was significantly higher (p≤0.05) in s3. However, when expressed per unit area, s1 significantly produced higher yields. The study recommends 120 kg N ha-1 or higher nitrogen rates and a closer spacing of 15 cm x 30 cm as the best option for Chia production in Kenya.
Enhancing Social Capital During the Pandemic: A Case of the Rural Women in Bu...Premier Publishers
Social capital plays an essential role in empowering people for social and economic change even during the pandemic. A livelihood project of the government was implemented among the members of a women’s association of a disadvantaged upland community in Bukidnon province, Southern Philippines for inclusive development. This study was conducted to determine the influence of some socio-economic attributes and the change in the knowledge level on the social capital of the rural women amidst the pandemic. The activities of the project were implemented considering the health protocols imposed by the government during the health crisis. The findings revealed that the trainings conducted resulted to a positive change in the knowledge level among the rural women. This facilitated the production of vegetables for their households and generated additional income very necessary during the pandemic especially that other economic activities were hindered. Similarly, there was a significant increase in the social capital of the rural women during the last two years. The main occupation, sources of income and their ethnicity significantly influenced the social capital of the rural women. The rural development workers and policymakers must consider the social capital of the group in the implementation of poverty alleviation programs.
Impact of Provision of Litigation Supports through Forensic Investigations on...Premier Publishers
This paper presents an argument through the fraud triangle theory that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases is adequate for effective prosecution of perpetrators as well as corporate fraud prevention. To support this argument, this study operationalized provision of litigation supports through forensic audit and investigations, data mining for trends and patterns, and fraud data collection and preparation. A sample of 500 respondents was drawn from the population of professional accountants and legal practitioners in Nigeria. Questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection and this was mailed to the respective respondents. Resulting responses were analyzed using the OLS multiple regression techniques via the SPSS statistical software. The results reveal that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations, fraud data mining for trends and patterns and fraud data collection and preparation for court proceedings have a positive and significant impact on corporate fraud prevention in Nigeria. This study therefore recommends that regulators should promote the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases in publicly listed firms in Nigeria, as this will help provide reports that are acceptable in court proceedings.
Improving the Efficiency of Ratio Estimators by Calibration WeightingsPremier Publishers
It is observed that the performances of most improved ratio estimators depend on some optimality conditions that need to be satisfied to guarantee better estimator. This paper develops a new approach to ratio estimation that produces a more efficient class of ratio estimators that do not depend on any optimality conditions for optimum performance using calibration weightings. The relative performances of the proposed calibration ratio estimators are compared with a corresponding global [Generalized Regression (GREG)] estimator. Results of analysis showed that the proposed calibration ratio estimators are substantially superior to the traditional GREG-estimator with relatively small bias, mean square error, average length of confidence interval and coverage probability. In general, the proposed calibration ratio estimators are more efficient than all existing estimators considered in the study.
Urban Liveability in the Context of Sustainable Development: A Perspective fr...Premier Publishers
Urbanization and quality of urban life are mutually related and however it varies geographically and regionally. With unprecedented growth of urban centres, challenge against urban development is more in terms of how to enhance quality of urban life and liveability. Making sense of and measuring urban liveability of urban places has become a crucial step in the context of sustainable development paradigm. Geographical regions depict variations in nature of urban development and consequently level of urban liveability. The coastal regain of West Bengal faces unusual challenges caused by increasing urbanization, uncontrolled growth, and expansion of economic activities like tourism and changing environmental quality. The present study offers a perspective on urban liveability of urban places located in coastal region comprising of Purba Medinipur and South 24 Parganas districts. The study uses the liveability standards covering four major pillars- institutional, social, economic and physical and their indicators. This leads to develop a City Liveability Index to rank urban places of the region, higher the index values better the urban liveability. The data for the purpose is collected from various secondary sources. Study finds that the eastern coastal region of the country covering state of West Bengal depicts variations in index of liveability determined by physical, economic, social and institutional indicators.
Transcript Level of Genes Involved in “Rebaudioside A” Biosynthesis Pathway u...Premier Publishers
Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni is a plant which has recently been used widely as a sweetener. This medicinal plant has some components such as diterpenoid glycosides called steviol glycosides [SGs]. Rebaudioside A is a diterpenoid steviol glycoside which is 300 times sweeter than table sugar. This study was done to investigate the effect of GA3 (50 mg/L) on the expression of 14 genes involved in Rebaudioside A biosynthesis pathway in Stevia rebaudiana under in vitro conditions. The expression of DXS remarkably decreased by day 3. Also, probably because of the negative feedback of GA3 on MEP-drived isoprenes, GGDS transcript level reached its lowest amount after GA3 treatment. The abundance of DXR, CMS, CMK, MCS, and CDPS transcripts showed a significant increase at various days after this treatment. A significant drop in the expression levels of KS and UGT85C2 is detected during the first day. However, expression changes of HDR and KD were not remarkable. Results revealed that the level of transcript of UGT74G1 and UGT76G1 up regulated significantly 4 and 2 times higher than control, respectively. However, more research needs to shed more light on the mechanism of GA3 on gene expression of MEP pathway.
Multivariate Analysis of Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze) Clones on Mor...Premier Publishers
Information on genetic variability for biochemical characters is a prerequisite for improvement of tea quality. Thirteen introduced tea clones characterized with objective; assessing tea clones based on morphological characters at Melko and Gera research stations. The study was conducted during 2017/18 cropping season on experimental plots in RCBD with three replications. Data recorded on morphological traits like days from pruning to harvest, height to first branch, stem diameter, leaf serration density, leaf length, leaf width, leaf size, petiole length, leaf ratio, internode length, shoot length, number of shoot, canopy diameter, hundred shoot weight, fresh leaf yield per tree. Cluster analysis of morphological trait grouped into four clusters indicated, the existence of divergence among the tested clones. The maximum inter-cluster distance was between clusters I and IV (35.27) while the minimum inter cluster distance was observed between clusters I and II (7.8).Principal components analysis showed that the first five principal components with eigenvalues greater than one accounted 86.45% for 15 morphological traits. Generally, the study indicated presence of variability for several morphological traits. However, high morphological variation between clones is not a guarantee for a high genetic variation; therefore, molecular studies need to be considered as complementary to biochemical studies.
Causes, Consequences and Remedies of Juvenile Delinquency in the Context of S...Premier Publishers
This research work was designed to examine nature of juvenile offences committed by juveniles, causes of juvenile delinquency, consequences of juvenile delinquency and remedies for juvenile delinquency in the context of Sub-Saharan Africa with specific reference to Eritrea. Left unchecked, juvenile delinquents on the streets engage in petty theft, take alcohol or drugs, rape women, rob people at night involve themselves in criminal gangs and threaten the public at night. To shed light on the problem of juvenile delinquency in the Sub-Saharan region data was collected through primary and secondary sources. A sample size of 70 juvenile delinquents was selected from among 112 juvenile delinquents in remand at the Asmara Juvenile Rehabilitation Center in the Eritrean capital. The study was carried out through coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 70 juvenile delinquents. The survey evidence indicates that the majority of the juvenile respondents come either from families constructed by unmarried couples or separated or divorced parents where largely the father is missing in the home or dead. The findings also indicate that children born out of wedlock, families led by single mothers, lack of fatherly role models, poor parental-child relationships and negative peer group influence as dominant causes of juvenile infractions. The implication is that broken and stressed families are highly likely to be the breeding grounds for juvenile delinquency. The survey evidence indicates that stealing, truancy or absenteeism from school, rowdy or unruly behavior at school, free-riding in public transportation, damaging the book of fellow students and beating other young persons are the most common forms of juvenile offenses. It is therefore, recommended that parents and guardians should exercise proper parental supervision and give adequate care to transmit positive societal values to children. In addition, the government, the police, prosecution and courts, non-government organizations, parents, teachers, religious leaders, education administrators and other stakeholders should develop a child justice system that strives to prevent children from entering deeper into the criminal justice process.
The Knowledge of and Attitude to and Beliefs about Causes and Treatments of M...Premier Publishers
Stigma and discrimination associated with mental illness are a common occurrence in the Sub-Saharan region including Eritrea. Numerous studies from Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that stigma and discrimination are major problems in the community, with negative attitudes and behavior towards people with mental illness being widespread. In order to assess the whether such negative attitudes persist in the context of Eritrea this study explored the knowledge and perceptions of 90 Eritrean university students at the College of Business and Economics, the University of Asmara regarding the causes and remedies of mental illness A qualitative method involving coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 90 university students to collecting data at the end of 2019. The survey evidence points that almost 50% of the respondents had contact with a mentally ill person suggesting that the significant number of the respondents experienced a first-hand encounter and knowledge of mental illness in their family and community. The findings show an overall greater science-based understanding of the causes of mental illness to be followed by recommended psychiatric treatments. The survey evidence indicates that the top three leading causes of mental illness in the context of Eritrea according to the respondents are brain disease (76%), bad events in the life of the mentally ill person (66%) and substance abuse or alcohol taking, smoking, taking drugs like hashish. (54%). The majority of the respondents have a very sympathetic and positive outlook towards mentally ill persons suggesting that mentally illness does not simply affect a chosen individual rather it can happen to anybody regardless of economic class, social status, ethnicity race and religion. Medical interventions cited by the majority of the respondents as being effective treatments for mental illness centered on the idea that hospitals and clinics for treatment and even cures for psychiatric disease. Changing perceptions of mental illnesses in Eritrea that paralleled the very caring and sympathetic attitudes of the sample university students would require raising public awareness regarding mental illness through education, using the mass media to raise public awareness, integrating mental health into the primary health care system, decentralizing mental health care services to increase access to treatment and providing affordable service to maintain positive treatment outcomes.
Effect of Phosphorus and Zinc on the Growth, Nodulation and Yield of Soybean ...Premier Publishers
An investigation was carried out at Kogi State University Student Research and Demonstration farm Anyigba during the 2019 wet season to observe the effect of phosphorus and zinc on the growth, nodulation and yield of soybean. The treatments comprised three levels: phosphorus and zinc (0, 30 and 60 kg P2O5/ha; 0, 5 and 10kg Zn/ha) and two varieties TGX 536 – 02D and Samsoy 2. The investigation revealed that application of phosphorus affected growth, nodulation, yield and some yield components of soybean while zinc application, apart from the plant height, which is reduced significantly, had no significant effect on other growth characters, nodulation, yield and yield components. However, it was generally found to decrease most of the characters. Application of 60 kg P2O5/ha gave the highest growth and yield, while 30 kg P2O5/ha gave the highest nodulation. Application of 60 kg P2O5/ha significantly increased yield to 1.9t/ha, which was significantly higher over the control plots, which gave 1.7t/ha. Crude protein and oil contents of the seeds were not significantly affected by phosphorus application but were significantly affected by zinc application, which significantly decreased protein content as its amount an increase from 0 to 10 kg/ha, and significantly increased oil content from 0 to 5kg/ha and decreased it below 5kg/ha. It was also revealed that the two varieties responded similarly to phosphorus and zinc in terms of growth, grain yield and crude protein content of the seeds.
Influence of Harvest Stage on Yield and Yield Components of Orange Fleshed Sw...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Adami Tullu Agricultural Research Center in 2018 under rainfed condition with supplementary irrigation to determine the influence of harvest stage on vine yield and tuberous root yield of orange fleshed sweet potato varieties. The experiment consisted of four harvest stages (105, 120, 135 and 150 days after planting) and Kulfo, Tulla and Guntute varieties. A 4 X 3 factorial experiment arranged in randomized complete block design with three replications was used. Interaction of harvest stage and variety significantly influenced above ground fresh biomass, vine length, marketable tuberous root weight per hectare, commercial harvest index and harvest index. The highest mean values of above ground fresh biomass (66.12 t/ha) and marketable tuberous root weight (56.39 t/ha) were produced by Guntute variety harvested at 135 days after planting. Based on the results, it can be recommended that, farmers of the study area can grow Guntute variety by harvesting at 135 days after planting to obtain optimum vine and tuberous root yields.
Performance evaluation of upland rice (Oryza sativa L.) and variability study...Premier Publishers
This study aimed at assessing genetic variability and to evaluate the performance of 13 improved upland rice varieties for yield and its components based on morphological traits. The field experiment was conducted using a randomized block design at Guraferda and Gimbo districts in the 2019 main cropping season. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) over the two locations revealed significant differences (p≤ 0.05) among varieties for days to 50% heading, days to 85% maturity, panicle length, thousand-grain weight, and grain yield. Similarly, the ANOVA for variety by location interactions depicted significant differences among the tested varieties for days to 50% heading, days to 85% maturity, and thousand-grain weight. High heritability was obtained from days to heading (88.5%), panicle length (85.0%), and grain yield (85.2%), which indicates these traits can be easily improved through selection. High to medium broad sense heritability and genetic advance as percentage of the mean for days to heading, thousand-grain weight, and grain yield indicates a good opportunity for improvement through selection using their phenotypic performance. This is mainly due to the high role of additive gene action in the expression of such traits. This study confirmed the presence of variability among varieties for most of the studied traits, which will create an opportunity for breeders to improve rice yield and other attributes.
Response of Hot Pepper (Capsicum Annuum L.) to Deficit Irrigation in Bennatse...Premier Publishers
This study was conducted at Enchete kebele in Benna-Tsemay Woreda, South Omo Zone to evaluate the response of hot pepper to deficit irrigation on yield and water productivity under furrow irrigation system. The experiment comprised four treatments (100 % of ETc, 85% of ETc, 70 % of ETc and 50% of ETc), respectively. The experiment was laid out in RCBD and replicated four times. The two years combined yield results indicated that, the maximum total yield (20.38 t/ha) was obtained from 100% ETc while minimum yield (12.92 t/ha) was obtained from 50% of ETc deficit irrigation level. The highest WUE 5.22 kg/ha mm-1 was obtained from 50% of ETc. Treatment of 100% ETc irrigation application had highest benefit cost ratio (4.5) than all others treatments. Applying 50% of ETc reduce the yield by 37% when compared to 100 % ETc. Accordingly, to achieve maximum hot pepper yield in areas where water is not scarce, applying 100% ETc irrigation water application level throughout whole growing season under furrow irrigation system is recommended. But, in the study area water scarcity is the major limiting factor for crop production. So, it is possible to get better yield and water productivity of hot pepper when we apply 85% ETc irrigation water throughout growing season under furrow irrigation system.
Harnessing the Power of Agricultural Waste: A Study of Sabo Market, Ikorodu, ...Premier Publishers
Nigeria is still burdened with huge responsibilities of waste disposal because the potential for benefits of proper waste management is yet to be harnessed. The paper evaluates the capacity of the Sabo Cattle market in producing the required quantities of waste from animal dung alongside decomposed fruits with a view to generating renewable energy possibilities for lighting, security and other business activities of the market. It is estimated that about 998 million tons of agricultural waste is produced yearly in the country with organic wastes amounting to 80 percent of the total solid wastes. This can be categorized into biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes. The paper evaluates the capacity of the Sabo Cattle market in producing the required quantities of waste from animal dung alongside decomposed fruits with a view to generating renewable energy possibilities for lighting, security and other business activities of the market. The Sabo market was treated as a study case with the adoption of in-depth examinations of the facility, animals and products for sale and waste generated. A combination of experimental, interviews (qualitative) and design simulation (for final phase) was adopted to extract, verify and analyse the data generated from the study. Animal waste samples were subjected to compositional and fibre analysis with results showing that the sample has high potency for biogas production. Biodegradable Wastes are human and animal excreta, agricultural and all degradable wastes. Availability of high quantity of waste generated being organic in Sabo market allows the use of anaerobic digestion to be proposed as a waste to energy technology due to its feasibility for conversion of moist biodegradable wastes into biogas. The study found that at peak supply period during the Islamic festivities, a conservative 300tonnes of animal waste is generated during the week which translates to over 800kilowatts of electricity.
Influence of Conferences and Job Rotation on Job Productivity of Library Staf...Premier Publishers
The general purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of conferences and job rotation on job productivity of library staff in tertiary institutions in Imo State, Nigeria. The survey research design was used for this study using questionnaire as an instrument for data collection. This study covered the entire population of 661. Out of these, 501 copies of the questionnaire representing 75.8% were duly completed and returned for analysis. Student’s t-test was used to analyze the research questions. The finding showed that conferences had no significant influence on the job productivity of library staff in tertiary institutions in Imo State, Nigeria (F cal= 7.86; t-vale =6.177; p >0.005). Finding also showed that job rotation significantly influences job productivity of library staff in tertiary institutions in Imo State, Nigeria (F-cal value= 18.65; t-value = 16.225; P<0.05). This study recommended that, government should ensure that library staff participate in conferences with themes and topics that are relevant to the job they perform and also ensure that there should be proper evaluation and feedback mechanism which aimed to ensuring control and minimize abuse of their development opportunities. Again, there should be written statement of objectives in order to sustain job rotation programmes. Also, that training and development needs of library staff must be identified and analyzed before embarking on job rotation processes as this would help to build skills, competences, specialization and high job productivity.
Scanning Electron Microscopic Structure and Composition of Urinary Calculi of...Premier Publishers
Microscopic examination of urine samples collected from geriatric dogs revealed increased numbers of erythrocytes, leucocytes, epithelial cells and pus cells along with casts, bacteria, spermatozoa and crystals of various shapes. Among the different crystals, triple phosphate or struvite were predominant, followed by calcium oxalate dihydrate, calcium oxalate monohydrate and ammonium urate or biurate. The struvite crystals were, coffin-lid shape and while calcium oxalate dihydrate were octahedron or envelope and monohydrate crystals demonstrated “picket fence” and “dumbbell” and “hemp seed” appearance. Brown or yellow-brown spherical bodies with irregular borders with thorn-apple appearance were shown by ammonium urate or biurate crystals. SEM aspects of magnesium ammonium phosphate crystals revealed perpendicular columnar strata, few with scattered hexa or octa-hedral coffin-lid shaped crystals and calcium phosphate crystals were like cracked eggshells. Presence of wavy phases with sundry areas (uric acid), picket fence (calcium oxalate monohydrate) and typical envelope (calcium oxalate dehydrate) were electron microscopic appearance of various crystals.
Gentrification and its Effects on Minority Communities – A Comparative Case S...Premier Publishers
This paper does a comparative analysis of four global cities and their minority districts which have been experiencing the same structural pressure of gentrification. The main contribution of this paper is providing a detailed comparison of four micro geographies worldwide and the impacts of gentrification on them: Barrio Logan in San Diego, Bo-Kaap in Cape Town, the Mission District in San Francisco, and the Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus District in Vienna. All four cities have been experiencing the displacement of minority communities due to increases in property values. These cities were chosen because their governments enacted different policies to temper the gentrification process. It was found that cities which implemented social housing and cultural inclusionary policies were more successful in maintaining the cultural and demographic make-up of the districts.
Oil and Fatty Acid Composition Analysis of Ethiopian Mustard (Brasicacarinata...Premier Publishers
The experiments was conducted at Holetta Agricultural Research Center, to analyze forty nine Ethiopian Mustard land races for oil and fatty acid composition traits The experiment was carried out in a simple lattice design. The analysis of variance showed that there were highly significant differences among genotypes for all oil and fatty acid traits compared. The significant difference indicates the existence of genetic variability among the land races which is important for improvement
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
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Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
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Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
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This paper demonstrates the importance of pedestrian social groups and existing pedestrian models that incorporates pedestrian group dynamics. Section 2investigates the characteristics of pedestrian behaviour and highlights the importance of group dynamics. Section 3 introduces current pedestrian modelling approaches that include the group dynamics and analyses the advantages and disadvantages. Finally, Section 4 summarises the literature review and discusses the trend of future pedestrian modelling. Pedestrian Group Dynamics Ubiquitous Pedestrian Social Groups
Researchers have been studying the behaviour of pedestrian social groups for more than half-century. In order to investigate the size determinant in small human group interaction, James (1953) observed 22,625 pedestrian samples in 18 public situations in Eugene and Portland, Oregon. The observations were taken in the winter and spring, 1950. Several different places including public markets, playgrounds, schools, swimming pools, public beaches were chosen as observation sites. The diversity of observation times and locations ensures that the observation results reflect the common behaviour of pedestrians of different roles. The observation shows that crowds are split into ‗free-forming‘ small groups with varying sizes. The group relationship was identified through the face-to-face interactions such as gesture, laughter, smiles, talk, play, or work. A total of 15,486 small groups were recorded in the observation. The observation results are consolidated into Table 1. Group size 1 indicated that individuals are also considered as small groups that only have one group member. From Table 1, it can be calculated that more than one third of the observed population are in groups with at least two members.
A similar field study was conducted by Aveni (1977), who interviewed 204 celebrating fans in a football event. The findings of the study showed that three quarters of the crowd were with one or more friends. This result shows higher group proportion in crowds than James‘ observation. The reason for this difference may be that the data in this research was collected in a special sports event, which may not reflect the group behaviour of mundane crowds in a variety of different locations.
It has been decades since the research carried out by James and Aveni. The social background has greatly changed, so are the ways people communicate and interact. Therefore, it is necessary to examine whether the crowd preserves group behaviour in more recent studies. Singh et al. (2009) investigated the behaviour of pedestrian subgroups by means of filming and observation. The behaviour of crowds was recorded every 10 seconds for half an hour in the following four locations: Nottingham train station, Broadmarsh shopping centre, Clumber Street and Nottingham University campus. Pedestrians in these four locations represent crowds in three environments: travelling, shopping and working. As can be seen from Figure 1, a large percentage of people in crowds are in subgroups of two or more members. In travelling environment (train station), the percentages of people in groups are about 55%. In shopping environments (Broadmarsh shopping centre and Clumber Street), the percentage is about 65%. On university campus where people study or work, the figure is about 47%. The varying numbers in different observation locations indicate that the proportion of people in groups can be influenced by the surrounding environment. One limitation of the observation approach is that the observation period is not long enough. Therefore it is possible that observers only captured a small section of the big picture which may cause deviation to the ‗ground truth‘.
To investigate the walking behaviour of pedestrian social groups, Moussaïd, Perozo, Garnier, Helbing, and Theraulaz (2010) analysed pedestrian behaviour in a low population density condition A and moderate density B. Detailed observation time and location are not given in the research. The result shows that the proportions of pedestrians belong to a group are 55% in population A and 70% in B, which occupied the majority of total populations. The author made an explanation to the difference between populations A and B: population A was recorded in a working day, while population B was observed on a Saturday afternoon in a popular commercial walkway. This means one can expect a higher frequency of groups in leisure areas and spare times.
Popovic, Kraal, and Kirk (2009)presented an observation technique that investigated how passenger activities mediate people‘s experience in the airport. In the study, detailed passenger behaviour in the airport was recorded. It was found that passengers travelling in groups had a considerable waiting time at the security process. The video showed that after the security screen, people wait for their group members in the middle of the walkway to passport control. Using the same observation technique, Livingstone, Popovic, Kraal, and Kirk (2012) reported results of passenger landside retail experience in airports. Through the data collection from 40 passengers, researchers found that the existence of passenger‘s travel companion can influence passenger‘s landside dwell time and shopping behaviour in discretionary activities. Pedestrian Group Sizes in Statistic Models
In order to quantitatively calculate the distribution of free- forming pedestrian group size, James (1953) fitted the sample group sizes (shows in Table 1) into two
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Table 1. Frequency distributions of 18 observations (James, 1953).
Group Size
Frequency
Percentage in total groups (%)
Percentage in total population (%)
1
10,149
65.54
44.86
2
3,945
25.47
34.87
3
1,075
6.94
14.25
4
238
1.54
4.21
5
65
.42
1.44
6
14
.09
0.37
N
15,486
100.00
100.00
Mean
1.46
Figure 1. The sizes and proportions of subgroups within a crowd (Singh et al., 2009).
distribution models: the negative binomial model and the Poisson model. The goodness of fit was compared by the chi-square test. The result showed that the fitting of the negative binomial model was much closer to the observation data than the Poisson model. The explanation to this was that Poisson distributions require a constant mean throughout the observation, thus it is more suitable when the social situation is relatively stable. On the other hand, the negative binomial can be considered as a group of different Poisson distributions collected together, therefore it is more accurate to use the negative binomial model in fitting data collected from 18 different observations in this case. Although this is a reasonable explanation to the fitting results, the author failed to make further attempts to support his conclusion. Therefore, this study would have been much more convincing if the author had tested the Poisson model in a stable social context and compared the goodness of fit with the negative binomial model.
Coleman and James (1961) reanalysed the data collected by James (1953) and stated that the frequency distribution of group sizes can be fitted by the truncated- Poisson (T-P) formula. The derivation of this formula is based on the assumptions that there is a constant probability for a group to lose and gain a member at any time, and finally the distribution of group sizes in the system will reach an equilibrium state. Using this mechanism, Moussaïd et al. (2010)collected crowd observation data from two crowd density conditions and fitted the data with a zero-truncated Poisson formula. The fitting results in Error! Reference source not found. shows that the Poisson model well presents the observed group sizes in population A, while in population B, the model predicts a higher proportion of individuals and lower proportion of groups of size 2. Nevertheless, the model reflects a similar tendency of the group sizes in observation. The use of statistical models in fitting the distribution of the group size provides a reference for generating pedestrian groups in the proposed model in this paper. Walking Speed of Pedestrian Groups
Henderson (1971)had suggested that the desired speeds within pedestrian crowd are Gaussian distributed with a mean value of 1.34 m/s and a standard deviation of 0.26 m/s. More recent research shows that pedestrian walking speed can be influenced by many factors. Those factors include environmental factors such as crowd density, widths of the walkway, and mixture of the flow as well as personal factors like age, gender, physical abilities and
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Figure 2. Observed group size distribution and zero-truncated Poisson fit (gray curve) (Moussaïd et al., 2010).
Figure 3. Effects of group size on pedestrian walking speed (Moussaïd et al., 2010).
purposes of trip (Harney, 2002; Moussaïd et al., 2010; Rastogi, Thaniarasu, and Chandra, 2011). In addition to these determinants, some research has observed that the group size significantly contribute to pedestrian speed.
Moussaïd et al. (2010) measured the walking speed of pedestrian groups with different sizes and concluded that pedestrian walking speed decreases linearly as the size of the group increases (Figure 3). However, as can be seen from Figure 3, this linear relationship is obtained by fitting curve to merely three data points. Therefore, a more persuasive conclusion would include more data points that stand for group speed of different group sizes. Besides this, the speed of individuals (group size of 1) is also worth investigating. Nonetheless, this research reveals a trend that the group speed reduces with the increase in size of the group.
Similar findings were discussed in the research of Schultz, Schulz, and Fricke (2010), who recorded and analysed the walking behaviour of passengers in Dresden International Airport by using a video surveillance system. Figure 4 compares the differences in speed between groups with one and three members. As the author had expected, the walking speed for groups with three members is clearly slower than for groups that have only one member. Since it was mentioned in many studies that the environment has great influence on pedestrians‘ walking speed (Finnis and Walton, 2008; Harney, 2002; Rastogi et al., 2011), above research results can only be applied in airport environment and cannot represent the pedestrian speed at any other situations wilfully.
For comparison, Table 2 summarises the mean walking speeds for pedestrian group with varying sizes at
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Figure 4. Group size interdependencies regarding to speed (Schultz et al., 2010). Table 2. Mean walking speed (m/s) of pedestrians in different group sizes
Mean walking speed (m/s)
Source
Locations
Group sizes
1
2
3
4
5
>5
Tarawneh (2001)
Crosswalk
1.35
1.35
1.33
-
-
-
Klüpfel (2007)
World Exhibition
1.38
1.28
1.24
1.24
1.22
1.10
Schultz et al. (2010)
International Airport
1.36
1.06
0.96
-
-
-
Rastogi et al. (2011)
Sidewalks
-
1.19
1.06
0.91
1.01
0.99
Wide Sidewalks
-
1.13
1.01
0.98
0.90
-
Precincts
-
1.09
1.00
1.00
0.89
0.83
different locations in previous research. Tarawneh (2001)investigated the speed of pedestrians at 27 crosswalks in the Great Amman Area, Jordan. Nearly 3500 pedestrian crossing operations were collected. Results show that pedestrian group size with three or more people walk much slower than smaller groups when crossing the street. Tarawneh argued that the reasons could be: (1) pedestrians in small groups (single or couple) feel less secure in the crosswalk; and (2) larger groups of pedestrians are more likely to engage in conversations during the walk. However, the author overlooked the particularity of the environment. In crosswalks, the speed of pedestrians is often constrained by traffic signals. Moreover, dwelling in the crosswalk may cause potential safety hazards. Thus, pedestrians in crosswalks tend to finish crossing as fast as possible and the effect of group interactions is relatively weak during this time. This can be seen from that individuals or couples were faster than larger groups by only 0.02 m/s, which is hardly noticeable.
Rastogi et al. (2011) collected pedestrian walking data from 18 locations in 5 cities in India. The pedestrian speed data were collected by marking a longitudinal section of known length on the pedestrians within this section in two peak periods in a day. It was reported that pedestrians travelling in groups walk at an average speed and almost 73% of the pedestrians who fall behind will catch up with other group members by increasing their speed. Rastogi also observed an interesting phenomenon: on sidewalks, pedestrians in large groups (have 5 or more people) often split into smaller sub- groups in order to avoid incoming pedestrian flow. This splitting behaviour decreases the group sizes, but increases the speed of pedestrian sub-groups. Therefore, it can be seen from Table 2 that the mean speed of five- people groups is faster than that of four-people groups on the sidewalks. This phenomenon is absent on wide sidewalks and precincts because there is no restriction in space and large groups are not necessary to split into small sub-groups.
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Figure 5. The avoidance action taken by people walking straight towards another (Singh et al., 2009).
Figure 6. Group formations according to Moussaïd et al. (2010)(Karamouzas and Overmars, 2010).
Walking Behaviour of Pedestrian Groups
From the filmed evidence, Singh et al. (2009) discovered the avoidance behaviour of pedestrians that walk in groups. Figure 5 shows the percentage of avoidance action taken when facing incoming pedestrians. It shows that in most cases, a person or a group of people will move to the right (34%) or left (44%) to avoid colliding with others (the ratio of people moving to the left is higher than that of moving to the right, a possible explanation of this phenomenon is that the experiment was conducted in UK, where left-hand traffic rule is applied). Only 22% of the groups will split in order to avoid colliding. This finding indicates a group of people are trying to remain together if possible. The social connection between group members creates an invisible bond that forces them to maintain a group structure, as is described in Helbing‘s ‗social force‘ theory (Dirk Helbing and Molnár, 1995). Singh also noticed in their research that if a group is split to avoid more than one obstacle, the group will remain apart and regroup once all the obstacles have been avoided.
To understand the crowd behaviour and its consequences for pedestrian flows, Reuter et al. (2014) conducted observations on the behaviour within large groups (groups of 5 and more people). Approximately 1800 observations around a soccer stadium were conducted. The observations showed that crowds at the soccer stadium consist of a high percentage of large groups. Furthermore, large groups often split up into smaller subgroups with a loose coherence. A recurring splitting up and re-joining was observed depending on the actual surroundings.
Moussaïd et al. (2010) investigated the spatial organisation of walking pedestrian groups in two different population densities. It has been suggested that at low density, people in the same group walk in a horizontal formation which enables them to communicate with other group members easily (Figure 6 (a)). While at moderate crowd density, this structure is hard to maintain without interfering with pedestrians outside the group. Therefore, the linear group structure will bend in the middle and form a ‗V‘-shaped formation. Moussaïd, et al. pointed out that
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this bending is forward in walking direction instead of backward, thus facilitates the social communication between group members (Figure 6 (b)). Though bending backward is a more flexible structure against the opposite pedestrian flow, it impedes the interaction within the group. Finally, at high density, the physical constraints would prevail over the social interaction, group members will walk behind each other and form a ‗river-like‘ formation (Figure 6 (c)). This ‗river-like‘ formation is also noticed in the crowd observation conducted by Singh et al. (2009). MODELLING APPROACHES
Model Classification
In the past decades, large numbers of approaches have been proposed for modelling pedestrian behaviours. Modelling methods can be classified according to different characteristics. In terms of modelling scope, there are macroscopic models and microscopic models. The main object of macroscopic models is the temporal evolution of the crowd density (Bauer, Seer, and Brändle, 2007). Macroscopic models treat pedestrians as a whole and ignore the local dynamics of individuals and interactions between pedestrians. Because of this, macroscopic models have the advantage in terms of computational load. However, researchers found that they are also not well suited for illustrating the effect of environmental change on pedestrian flow performance (Teknomo, Takeyama, and Inamura, 2000). Moreover, macroscopic models often assume that the population is comprised of homogeneous agents in an equilibrium state, which cannot represent real-world situations (Johansson et al., 2012).
In contrast, individual properties are distinguished in microscopic models. These models focus on the behaviour and decision making of individual pedestrians, as well as the effect on other pedestrians around them. Microscopic models have the potential to overcome the limitations of previously discussed macroscopic models by incorporating a set of pre-determined rules. By defining the behavioural rules properly, the microscopic models are able to present more accurate pedestrian behaviour in a greater variety of situations (Camillen et al., 2009; Pluchino, Garofalo, Inturri, Rapisarda, and Ignaccolo, 2013). However, a detailed pedestrian model needs support of rich data sets that slow down the computational speed (Bauer et al., 2007). Examples of microscopic models are: physical-based social force models (Dirk Helbing and Molnár, 1995), geography- based cellular automata models that follow pre-designed rules (Fukui and Ishibashi, 1999), and agent-based models which allow agents to interact with others as well as surrounding environments according to their own attributes (Macal and North, 2005).
Apart from the modelling scale, pedestrian models can also be categorised by whether they are discrete or continuous, deterministic or stochastic, rule-based or force-based, high or low fidelity (Schadschneider et al., 2011). This paper will mainly introduce the following three microscopic models: social force model, cellular automata model and agent-based model. Social Force Models
Social force models are probably the most known method in the group of continuous models. Lewin and Cartwright (1952)suggested that the changes of human behaviour can be guided by social forces or social fields. Based on this concept, Dirk Helbing and Molnár (1995) proposed the basic equation of the social force model to describe pedestrian motion,
퐹 훼=퐹 훼 0+ 퐹 훼훽훽+ 퐹 훼퐵퐵+ 퐹 훼푖푖.
They assumed that a pedestrian‘s total motivation F α can be influenced by four main factors: (1) F α0 – the desire of this pedestrian α to reach a certain destination or goal; (2) F αββ – the total influence from other pedestrians β such as the repulsive effect of others; (3) F αBB – the total repulsive force generated to avoid a border or an obstacle B; and (4) F αii – the attraction of other persons or objects i. In addition to the above four main effects, the social force model can be applied to demonstrate complex pedestrian behaviour by adding a fluctuation term. This fluctuation term enables modellers to consider random variations of pedestrian behaviour and make extension from the basic formula. Therefore, a more general form of the social force model is now defined by,
풅풘 휶 풅풕 =푭 휶+풇풍풖풄풕풖풂풕풊풐풏풔.
Using the social force model, several observed collective phenomena in pedestrian crowds have been successfully reproduced. This includes the lane forming behaviour in crowds and the oscillatory walking pattern at a narrow exit (Dirk Helbing and Molnár, 1995) as well as the mechanisms in escape panic situations (Dirk Helbing, Farkas, and Vicsek, 2000). Dirk Helbing, Buzna, Johansson, and Werner (2005)conclude that the simplicity and small number of parameters are the main advantages of the social-force-based simulation. Moreover, it is suggested that those parameters in the model do not need to be calibrated for each new situation, which makes social force models adaptive when applying to different simulation environments.
Moussaïd et al. (2010)had extended Helbing‘s model to simulate the walking behaviour of pedestrian social groups by adding an extra social interaction term 푓 푖 푔푟표푢푝into Helbing‘s social force formula. It was suggested that individuals in a group continuously adjust their position to facilitate communication, while trying to avoid collision with group members. Therefore, three
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Figure 7. Simulation results for pedestrian groups with and without communication-enhancing interactions(Moussaïd et al., 2010).
factors were considered to demonstrate the inner-group relationship. The gaze direction of each group member iis important in group communication. This can be modelled by a vision field term 푓 푖 푣푖푠. Pedestrian i keeps a certain distance to the group‘s centre of mass. Therefore a second attraction term 푓 푖 푎푡푡 is defined. Finally, a repulsion effect 푓 푖 푟푒푝 was added so that group members do not overlap each other. In summary, the social interaction term 푓 푖 푔푟표푢푝 was defined as, 푓 푖 푔푟표푢푝=푓 푖 푣푖푠+푓 푖 푎푡푡+푓 푖 푟푒푝.
A computer simulation had been run for testing the group behaviour. At the start of the computer simulation, pedestrians were given random positions and specifications of the walking direction parallel to the street. Group members were initialised with a same desired walking direction and distributed desired speed. Measurements were made every 5 seconds and the simulation results were averaged over 1000 runs. The result of computer simulations based on this model is shown in Figure 7. The model parameter 훽1 represents the strength of social interaction among group members. It was suggested that when 훽1 is set to 0 (there is no communication between group members), an inverse ‗V‘- like structure is generate and the walking speed pedestrian groups is close to pedestrians walking alone (indicated in the dash curve). When the group communication is strong (훽1=4), a V-shaped structure is created and the group speed is reduced. Cellular Automata Models
A relatively novel model called Cellular Automata (CA) uses intuitive rules that make the model easy to understand without complex mathematical equations and thus demand less computation than social force models. In cellular automata models, space is represented by a uniform grid of cells. At each discrete time step, the values of variables in each cell are updated according to a set of local rules and the values of variables in the cells at its neighbourhood (Zheng, Zhong, and Liu, 2009).
Köster, Seitz, Treml, Hartmann, and Klein (2011)applied the cellular automata to study the influence of group formations in a crowd. In their work, they divided space into hexagonal cells (Figure 8), thus creating two additional natural directions than square cells. An experiment for classroom egress was conducted and compared with simulation results. 30 students were asked to stand at their desks and leave the classroom at the signal. In the hallway outside the classroom, students were asked to walk across a line and enter a larger entrance hall. During this procedure, the door was identified as the only one bottleneck. It was observed that virtual agent groups in the model tend to stay together and walk one behind the other through the bottleneck. Once they reach the open space, they tend to walk abreast. The resulting simulations matched the experiment not only qualitatively, but also quantitatively. However, the local rules applied in this model are based on the intuition of the designers and lack of support from social science. Therefore, the authors highlighted the need for greater cooperation between social scientists and modellers.
Reuter et al. (2014)introduced a combination of empirical studies and computations to investigate how the presence of large groups impacts the flow of a crowd. The group model is realised within a cellular automaton model of pedestrian movement described by Köster et al. (2011). In the model, large groups were assembled from small communication groups using the empirical results. The computational simulations suggested that large groups behave as moving obstacles especially at crossroads. Band pattern was found at crossings where
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Figure 8. Pedestrian moving on hexagonal cells (Köster et al., 2011).
two pedestrian streams drag each other along. It was suggested that the presence of groups have influence on the typical band pattern at pedestrian crossings. However, the detailed modelling process of the simulation was not demonstrated in the paper. It is lack of universality to use empirical data collected from a special location (soccer stadium) to assemble pedestrian groups in other scenarios.
Sarmady, Haron, and Talib (2009) presented a variation of least effort cellular automata algorithm that considered the effect of pedestrian groups on crowd movement. In the model, a group leader is defined for each group, and other follower will maintain a short distance to the leader of the group. On the other way round, the leader will observe its distance with group members and adjust its speed to wait for the stalled group members. The model was tested in a walkway scenario, where pedestrians enter from one side and move towards the other. The simulations were run under different pedestrian densities and pedestrian group sizes. The results suggest that pedestrian groups act as virtual barriers and can slow down the crowd. Although the simulation results show acceptable results for group formations, the proposed model was not validated by comparing simulation results with real-world experiments. Agent-Based Models
Agent-based modelling and simulation (ABMS) is a relatively new approach to modelling systems comprised of autonomous decision-making entities called agents. Unlike the Systems Dynamics approach that applied the ‗top-down‘ systems view, the agent-based models are built from the ‗bottom-up‘ by simulating the interaction between individual agents (Macal and North, 2005; Zheng et al., 2009). In agent-based models, agents follow some pre-determined rules of behaviour, which allow them to execute various behaviours appropriately in the modelled system. This unique characteristic makes ABM particularly suitable for the study of pedestrian behaviour in complex environments for both outdoor and indoor conditions.
A STREETS model was proposed for investigating pedestrian behaviour in urban centres (Schelhorn, O'Sullivan, Haklay, and Thurstain-Goodwin, 1999). Pedestrians are initialised with socio-economic characteristics and behavioural characteristics. Socio- economic characteristics defined the attributes such as gender and income of the agents and are used to create pedestrians‘ travel plan. While behavioural characteristics include the detailed behavioural factors such as speed, visual range and fixation. Pedestrians were ‗released‘ into the simulation environment according to a Poisson distribution. The whole simulation was controlled by a SWARM observer, which also collects the interaction information in the model. However, this STREETS model was under development and no experiment had been run on this model to test its performance. The authors pointed out that the navigation of pedestrians was sometimes unreliable and pedestrian group behaviour should be incorporated in the model.
Vizzari, Manenti, Ohtsuka, and Shimura (2012)introduced a GA-PED model which investigated the pedestrian and group dynamics in crowds. It was observed in their proposed experiment that pedestrian pairs can easily form a line to avoid facing crowds. However, pedestrian groups with bigger numbers of members had difficulties to form such a line shape, thus they tend to form a triangular shape which is similar to the ‗V‘ shape observed by Moussaïd et al. (2010). Then, a simulation model was applied to the experimental scenario and showed consistent pedestrian dynamics with the previous experiment. After the validation, the model is further adopted to simulate real-world scenarios in which large groups of pilgrims moving in an open space outside a train station. The simulation successfully generated results regarding the pedestrian waiting times and the space utilization in the assigned ―waiting boxes‖ outside a train platform. Those results provide positive reference for the crowd management. Pedestrians in the GA-PED
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model have a limited form of autonomy. Although they were able to make decisions about where to move according to their perception of the environment and their desire, they can only be activated at each simulation turn.
Based on Reynolds‘s flocking technique and steering behaviours(Reynolds, 1999), Qiu and Hu (2010) proposed an agent-based simulation system for modelling crowd behaviour with group structures, in which agents can move randomly, avoid obstacles and maintain group structures. A pedestrian crowd simulation was conducted in the scenario of a circular rectangle- shaped hallway. A virtual gate was positioned at the top lane of the hallway to calculate pedestrian flow. The flow is defined as the number of agents passed by the gate during a time interval in the simulation. The simulation showed that pedestrian flow decreases as the intra-group influence strengthens or the inter-group relationships increase. Also, a larger group size will increase the pedestrian flow. The group movement is governed by the rule that each group is assumed to have a group leader and the leader would influence the decisions of other group members. However, in real-world situations, pedestrian groups are often composed of friends and families, where it is not necessary to have a group leader.
Ma, et al. (2013; 2012; 2011) introduced an individual agent decision model to simulate stochastic passenger behaviour in airport departure terminals. Using Bayesian networks, the conditional probabilities of passengers‘ advanced traits (shopping preference, hunger level, technology preference, etc) were calculated through the basic traits (age, gender, nationality, flight class, etc.). By considering the restriction factors (such as remaining time and walking distance) passengers in the simulation can behave autonomously based on the results of Bayesian network inferences. However, the simulation did not explain how the group dynamics influence the passengers‘ decision making process and what will happen if passengers were in a group where group members have very different behaviour in their advanced traits.
Inspired by the work of Moussaïd et al. (2010),Karamouzas and Overmars (2010) presented a novel approach to simulate the walking behaviour of small groups of virtual humans. The model used a two- phase approach to ensure that the group members will stay as close as possible while avoiding collisions with other groups, individuals and static obstacles. This model has been implemented in different scenarios including group interactions in a narrow corridor and a shopping mall. The results indicated that the model is in accordance with empirical data of pedestrian groups collected by means of video recordings. The authors suggested that this model is not designed for simulating pedestrian groups in densely packed scenarios and some collisions may occur in complex environments.
Cheng, Reddy, Fookes, and Yarlagadda (2014a) presented an agent-based model to simulate passenger behaviour at the airport check-in process. The simulation results showed that the passenger group dynamics have significant influences on the performance and utilisation of services in airport terminals. Cheng, et al. also conducted a case study to demonstrate how the agent- based passenger flow model can be used to examine the efficiency of an airport evacuation strategy (Cheng, Reddy, Fookes, and Yarlagadda, 2014b). By comparing evacuation time of individual passengers and passengers in groups, the impact of group dynamics during an airport evacuation process was analysed. The simulation results shows that group dynamics can significantly impact passenger behaviour during airport evacuation processes and consequently affects the total evacuation time. Other Modelling Approaches
A modified discrete element model (DEM) had been used to investigate the behaviour of subgroups in crowd dynamics by means of filming and observation(Singh et al., 2009). By incorporating moving ‗formation attractor points‘ in the Crowd DMX model, members of a subgroup will keep together while walking. Through simulation with the new code and direct comparison to the filmed footage, the model is successful in creating subgroups and simulating their behaviour within crowds. One limitation of this study is that the observation of pedestrian behaviour is only conducted in a university. Therefore, it is recommended that further observations at different locations are needed. Seung In, Quek, and Yong (2012) presented a pedestrian model based on the Common Ground (CG) theory to incorporate the impact of social interaction among group members in the crowd simulation. This proposed model inherited the social realism provided by the CG model and is computationally tractable for a large number of groups and individuals. The task of navigation in a group is viewed as performing a joint activity among agents, which requires effective coordination among group members.
Peters and Ennis (2009) proposed a model to simulate plausible behaviours of small groups. Scenes were populated with different combinations of singles, pairs and groups of three and participants were asked to identify more realistic scenes. It is suggested that adding plausible groups to a pedestrian crowd scene is important for an increased sense of realism.
Apart from microscopic models, some modelling approaches were developed to govern the macroscopic behaviour of agent groups. Kwon, Lee, Lee, and Takahashi (2008) introduced a novel group motion editing method that allows animators to manipulate existing group motion data interactively. Using this technique, the user can deform a group motion by pinning or dragging individuals. Takahashi et al. (2009) presented a spectral-based approach for synthesising realistic group motions. The main idea of this approach is to extract the spectral-based structures of group
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formations using Laplacian matrices of the graph associated with their adjacency relationships among individuals. CONCLUSIONS Pedestrian models have made an important contribution to understanding the behaviour of human crowds. By successfully simulating pedestrian dynamics, pedestrian models are widely adopted in designing the layout of street networks, examining the efficiency of building evacuation strategy, evaluating the performance of pedestrian facilities, and so forth. The literature review suggests that crowds consist of both individual pedestrians and people in groups, and highlighted the need for incorporating group dynamics in developing pedestrian models. It is shown that the percentage of people in groups within a crowd ranges from 40% to 70% at different occasions. Researchers also discovered that the size of a pedestrian group can influence pedestrian walking dynamics such as speed, group formation, and avoidance behaviour. As a result, one should pay attention to group dynamics when developing pedestrian flow models. Although little attention has been paid to group dynamics when developing passenger flow models, some researchers had considered the group interaction in pedestrian modelling. To emulate the existence of pedestrian social groups in crowds, mathematical group size distribution models and group formation models were proposed. Some microscopic models have produced some very good results in understanding the influence of pedestrian groups on crowd behaviour. The social force models demonstrate how individuals‘ movement can be influenced by others and the environment; cellular automata models are good at describing behavioural rules and spacial relationships; agent-based models are often used to demonstrate emergent behaviour by simulating the interactions between heterogeneous agents and the environment. The traditional pedestrian modelling approaches were mainly proposed to address certain specific behaviour problems. However, pedestrian behaviour and simulation environments are becoming more and more complex. In order to meet the challenges, one modelling approach may be used in combination with the advantages of others to provide more accurate pedestrian models in various scenarios.Moreover, current modelling approaches to some extent, involve the intuition and assumption of the modeller. Therefore, to produce more realistic pedestrian modelling results, it is necessary to have a better understanding towards the characteristic and decision-making process of individual pedestrians. This may require knowledge in the social and psychological field. Thus broader cross-discipline incorporation may be required in the future development of the model. REFERENCES
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