Endocrine system

1. Endocrine system

2. Endocrinology
Endocrinology is the scientific and medical
discipline that focuses on hormones, including
the function and disorders of endocrine
glands.

3. The endocrine system consists of
several glands that secrete hormones
that affect the different organ systems
The main endocrine glands are the
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid
gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal
glands, pancreas, and gonads (ovary
and testis).

4. Development of the endocrine system
The endocrine system arises from all three embryonic germ layers. The
endocrine glands that produce the steroid hormones, such as the gonads
and adrenal cortex, arise from the mesoderm.
In contrast, endocrine glands that arise from the endoderm and ectoderm
produce the amine, peptide, and protein hormones.

5. The Hypothalamus
Role in regulating hunger, thirst, and body temperature
Developmental changes from birth to the end of the first year.

6. The hypothalamus in newborns operates with low efficiency, but by the end of the
first year of life, its connections with the thyroid gland and adrenal glands are well
established.
Throughout childhood, the pituitary gland produces various hormones, including
somatotropin, which is responsible for the growth and development of tissues,
● thyrotropin, which is necessary for the functioning of the thyroid gland.

7. ● The pineal gland, producing melatonin, regulates sexual activity and inhibits
the function of the thyroid gland; it grows actively until the ages of 10 to 12.
● The thymus reaches peak activity in the first years of life and decreases in
size and function with the onset of puberty.

8. The thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is active from birth,
its activity and size increase during puberty.
Thyroid hormones, such as thyroxine, contain
iodine and play a significant role in regulating
metabolism and brain development.

9. The parathyroid glands
The parathyroid glands are four small organs located around the thyroid gland in
the neck. They play a critical role in maintaining stable blood calcium levels, which
is essential for the normal functioning of muscles and the nervous system, as well
as for bone health.

10. These glands produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates blood calcium levels in
conjunction with vitamin D and calcitonin, produced by the thyroid gland. When blood calcium
levels drop, the parathyroid glands respond by releasing more PTH, which stimulates:
1. The release of calcium from bones, increasing its level in the blood.
2. Increased absorption of calcium in the intestines, also contributing to higher blood calcium
levels.
3. Reduction of calcium excretion by the kidneys, helping to retain it in the body.
In the first two years of life, the activity of the parathyroid glands is particularly high as this period
involves rapid growth and development of bone tissue in children. At this stage, calcium is
necessary for bone formation and strengthening, making the function of these glands critically
important.

11. The adrenal glands
The adrenal glands are paired endocrine glands located above the kidneys. They
consist of two parts: the cortex and the medulla, each of which performs its
specific functions and produces different hormones.

12. Development of the Adrenal Cortex:
Immediately after birth, the fetal zone of the cortex, which was active in the
womb and produced steroids to support pregnancy, begins to atrophy.
The definitive zone that replaces it develops rapidly, starting to produce
cortisol, which is important for regulating metabolism and the immune system.
This zone also begins to produce aldosterone, which helps regulate the
balance of sodium and potassium in the body, as well as blood pressure.

13. Development of the Medulla:
The medulla of the adrenal glands produces adrenaline and
noradrenaline—hormones that participate in regulating the body's response to
stress and affect the function of the cardiovascular and nervous systems.
In the early years of life, the medulla continues to develop, increasing its capacity
to synthesize these hormones, allowing the child to adequately respond to
stressful situations.

14. Assessment
Family History: It's important to inquire about the presence of endocrine or
metabolic diseases among close relatives.
Personal History: Clarification of information about the child's development from
birth, including growth, weight, sexual maturation, and other important
developmental milestones.
Disease History: Information about current complaints and symptoms that may
indicate endocrine disorders (for example, changes in weight, fatigue, mood
changes).

15. Physical examination:
1. Palpation of the thyroid gland:
● The thyroid gland is palpated on the neck in the area of the anterior surface of the
trachea.
● The child should be in a relaxed state with their head slightly tilted back.
● The doctor palpates the gland, determining its size, shape, consistency, and the
presence of nodules or other changes.
● It is also important to pay attention to any tenderness of the gland during palpation,
which could be a sign of inflammation or another pathological process.

16. 2.Palpation of the parathyroid glands:
● The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland and are
usually not palpable in healthy children.
● Enlargement may be noticeable in certain diseases, such as primary hyperparathyroidism.
3.Examination of the adrenal glands:
● The adrenal glands are located in the lumbar region above the kidneys and are usually not
accessible for palpation due to their deep location in the abdominal cavity.
● Palpation of the adrenal glands is only possible in cases of significant enlargement, which is
rare.

17. Laboratory tests:
-Hormone tests: TSH, T4, T3, cortisol, sex hormones, and others
depending on the suspected diagnosis.
Instrumental methods:
-Ultrasound of the thyroid gland and other endocrine organs.
-Additional imaging methods (MRI, CT) if detailed visualization of
anatomical structures is required.

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