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The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
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Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
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• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
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The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2. Ethics & Philosophy
What is philosophy?
Greek word “philos” which means LOVE &
“Sophia” which means WISDOM
PHILOSOPHY = LOVE OF WISDOM
PHILOSOPHER = LOVER OF WISDOM
As a science
Philosophy is interested with the meaning of
reality including our human experiences.
It seeks to explain the ultimate cause of
everything by the use of human reason alone.
Directed towards meaningful activity as a result
of profound reflection & analysis.
3. What is ethics?
It is philosophical science that studies the
morality of human act.
As a science
Ethics is concerned with the analysis of the
nature of the human conduct from the point
of view of morality.
4. Divisions of Philosophy
Theoretical or speculative – studies
the truth to be known , e.g. God,
immortality of the soul, origin of the
universe.
Practical Philosophy – studies truths
to be acted upon, e.g., ethics,
axiology, semantics & the like.
6. Theoretical/speculative philo
Cosmology –
studies the origin, evolution & fate of the
entire universe (w/c came from the Greek
word “kosmos” - world).
Cosmologist – philosopher that focuses on
the question of universe’ origin in a
scientific & philosophical manner.
7. Ontology –
deals with the nature of existence of
things & the status of reality.
Came from the greek word “onta” w/c
means “being”
a.k.a study of being
Branch of metaphysics
8. Metaphysics
Greek word “meta” or beyond &
“physikon” or nature
Studies the nature of the mind, the self
& the consciousness.
Investigates the nature of religion,
existence of God, concepts of time,
space, cause & chance
Discover the true nature of things, their
ultimate essence & the reason for being.
9. Psychology
For the Greeks, it is the study of the
nature of the soul of the person & other
entities.
Aristotle coined the word psychology
Greek words “psyche” or soul & “logos”
or science or study.
Today it is known to be the science that
studies human & animal behavior.
10. Theodicy
a.k.a Rational theology
Greek words “theos” or God & “dike” or
justice.
Investigates the nature, being &
attributes of God not based on the Bible
& divine revelation but by logical
abstractions & reasoning.
11. Epistemology
“episteme” or knowledge
Addresses the philosophical problems
surrounding the theory of knowledge.
Definition, concepts, sources, criteria,
kinds of knowledge, etc.
12. Practical Philosophy
Semantics
“sema” meaning sign or mark
“semantikos” meaning significant
Studies the meaning of words & its
linguistics forms, functions & relation to
other words.
13. Axiology
“axios” worthy
“logos” study
Study of the philosophy of value
judgments or worthiness.
Studies values, its origin, types &
characteristics
14. Aesthetics
Aims to establish the general principles
of art & beauty.
Can be divided into philosophy of art &
philosophy of beauty
Greek word “aisthetikos” perceptive of
things through sensations, feelings &
intuitions.
15. Logic
Deals with the nature of thinking &
reasoning using empirical support to
establish the truth.
Logical validity – if the premise is true
then the conclusion must be true.
Deductive reasoning – from universal to
particular
Inductive reasoning – from particular to
universal
16. Ethics
Greek word “ethos” means characteristic
way of acting
Latin word “mos” (or mores)
Sometimes called Moral Science or Moral
philosophy
Goal to investigate the nature of the
human conduct.
17. Ethics & Morality
Sometimes use interchangeably
Usually can mean the same thing
18. Distinction in terms of philosophy:
Morality – quality of goodness or
badness in a human act (good – moral;
bad – immoral).
Conformity to the rules of right conduct
Judgment that refers to moral standards &
moral conduct
Ethics – formal study of those standards
Oftentimes called “moral philosophy”
Investigates the nature of moral principles,
ethical systems & moral norms that people use
to justify their moral judgment.
19. Ethics as a Normative Science
Ethics are called Normative Science
because in ethics we determine
norms ideals, standard or values, to
justify our moral judgment
21. Descriptive Ethics
Studying & describing the morality of people,
culture, or society.
Compare & contrast the different values,
principles, code of ethics, beliefs & practices of
people.
Serves as foundation of normative ethics &
provides a standard of morality of people,
culture or society
Does not assess moral soundness of an ethical
system but describe objectively the values &
beliefs of people.
Does not prescribe how people should act but
describe how people act.
22. Examples of descriptive ethics
Psychological egoism
The study of human motivation.
Does not say what is good or bad, right
or wrong;
Declares result based on scientific
studies.
23. Cultural relativism
Does not prescribed how a person should
act
Describe how people when grouped &
observed in their own cultural realities
actually differ in the behavior.
The concept of good or bad, moral or
immoral is relative to culture.
24. Normative ethics
Involves moral judgment based on
ethical norm or theory.
Consist of moral rules that governs
people’s behavior.
25. 3 task of normative ethics
To form into a related whole the
various norms, rules, & values of a
society’s morality;
To find the basic principle from which
the particular norm can be derived;
To justify an ethical norm or moral
principle.
26. Methaethics
Branch of normative ethics;
Concerned with analysis & meaning of
terms like “good”, “bad”, “moral”,
“immoral”, “moral obligation” &
others.
Does not evaluate belief nor evaluate
the process of moral reasoning but
simply analyze the usage & meaning
of words.
27. The synderesis of man according to
St. Thomas Aquinas
St. Thomas Aquinas
Italian philosopher, theologian & priest
A.k.a Prince of Scholastics
Wrote 25 books (including Summa
Theologica & Summa Contra Gentiles)
28. Moral sense in man in 3 different
ways (St. T. Aquinas)
1. Of all the creatures only man is able to
distinguished or has the capacity to know
the difference between what is good &
bad.
2. Man is always obligated to do good and
avoid evil.
3. Man knows that he is accountable for his
actions – good or bad. Man realizes that
the performance of an action entails
rewards & punishment.
29. Sigmund Freud
Father of Psychoanalysis Theory
Theory of sexuality
Individual development
Theory of the Psyche (understand
human behavior)
Man must learn to control inborn desires
Man must achieve fulfillment in ways
that are harmonious with others
30. Freud’s theory of the Id, Ego &
Superego
Superego
Will part in Plato’s theory
Reflects social rules & values of the
society that govern our behavior.
Includes codes & rules that we have
been taught
Reason & will power
31. Ego
Rational self or the conscious self
Part reason (intellect) & part will power
Under constant pressure to fight-off the
pleasure-seeking desires of the Id.
Pressured by reality forces of the environment &
the moral dictates of one’s up bringing
(superego).
Id.
Irrational part in us or unconscious instincts,
such as sex & aggression.
33. Business Application
A businessman may be tempted to
cheat his customer in the process of
selling (Id). He realizes however, that
to give in to this enticement would be
a violation of the Code of Ethics for
Businessmen & other positive laws,
like the Consumer Act (superego). He
therefore discerns & begins to
rationalize that it is better not to fool
or cheat the customer (ego).
34. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
Lawrence Kohlberg
An American psychologist famous for his work
in moral education, reasoning, and
development.
A close follower of Jean Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development, his work reflects and
extends his predecessor’s work.
Editor's Notes
This is our official second lecture. Hahatiin ko yung discussion nito so there will be two discussions and 1 performance task for this specific chapter. This lecture is entitled Philosophical Background of Ethics. We will delve into the divisions of philosophy, ethics and morality, descriptive ethics, and normative ethics. We are also going to tackle the individuals who laid out the foundation of philosophy and ethics. Let us start.
We have to define philosophy first and we have here the etymology. The word philosophy came from Greek word philos which means love and Sophia which means wisdom. Technically speaking, if we consider the origin of words, philosophy means love of wisdom and a philosopher is a lover of wisdom. Now, as a science, philosophy deals with the meaning of reality including all our life experiences. It aims to determine the causes of everything and more likely, it would like to provide an understanding of why we experience certain things in life. We should have an understanding of our experiences. That is why we often hear, we learn from our experiences, we become a better person once we deal with difficult situation and experiences.
Now, ethics is a philosophical science. In this, we would like to evaluate whether an act or behavior is morality right or wrong. What we need to examine is the nature of human conduct and our basis is our perception of what is acceptable and what is not acceptable based on what we have learned from our peers, our family, and in academic institution. This is more on the perception component since there are evident differences on how we view things. For example, the death penalty is not legal or ethically correct in our country since we are a Catholic nation and our morality dictates us that we do not the right to take a life. However, in other countries, this is considered as legal and correct. Same goes with other societal issues such as abortion and the use of contraceptives.
In this session, we are going to deal with two divisions of philosophy. We have here theoretical or speculative philosophy and then we also have practical philosophy.
Theoretical philosophy is already given from the term itself. This is more on theories and concepts. In this division, we are going to encounter concepts related to God, the immortality of the soul, and the origin of the universe. Indeed, these are quite hard to understand and there are numerous debates that may emanate from these topics.
Practical philosophy on the other hand, deals with the application component and it enables us to make use of the philosophical theories in our life. Ethics actually part of practical philosophy, together with axiology and semantics.
This is the two divisions philosophy including their different branches or areas of study. Under theoretical philosophy, we have… Under practical philosophy, we have…
We are going to discuss these one by one starting with Cosmology…
This is the first area of study under theoretical or speculative philosophy. It says here that cosmology studies….
This is often associated with astronomy. In here, we are going to mention things such as the Big Bang theory which speculates how the universe or the world started. It encompasses the study of nature, the study of how life started, and the study of the religious story of the origin of the universe.
We have here the second area of study under theoretical philosophy – ontology. It deals with…
This specific branch deals with the realities of things. We Are going to encounter terms such as realism, idealism, abstraction, and the like if we are going to delve deeper into ontology. We often have questions whether we are a realists or we are an idealists. It is for you to find in which category do you belong.
This is the third area already under theoretical philosophy. We have here metaphysics.
Topics of metaphysical investigation include existence, objects and their properties, space and time, cause and effect, and possibility. If we are going to discuss metaphysics, we are going to deal with mind and matter as well as the concept of free will
You are more familiar with this one – psychology. For the Greeks…
Basically, the goal of psychology is to describe a behavior and to predict future behavior. This is applicable even in workplace and that is the reason why they incorporated psychology-based subjects in your business management curriculum. You have human behavior in organization as one of your subjects since it would help you to understand why people behave the way they do. We also have to understand that behavior is affected by a variety of factors and it includes your friends, your family members, and the situation.