This chapter discusses carbohydrates and nucleic acids. It begins by describing how carbohydrates like starch and cellulose are synthesized by plants from glucose. Carbohydrates are then classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides based on whether they can be hydrolyzed into one, two, or many glucose units. The chapter also covers nucleic acids like RNA and DNA, which are polymers of ribose or deoxyribose linked by phosphate groups and bonded to nitrogenous bases. DNA consists of two antiparallel strands bonded through base pairing between adenine-thymine and cytosine-guanine.
This chapter discusses carbohydrates and nucleic acids. It begins by describing how carbohydrates like starch and cellulose are synthesized by plants from glucose. Carbohydrates are then classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides based on whether they can be hydrolyzed into one, two, or many glucose units. The chapter also covers nucleic acids like RNA and DNA, which are polymers of ribose or deoxyribose linked by phosphate groups and bonded to nitrogenous bases. DNA consists of two antiparallel strands bonded through base pairing between complementary bases.
This chapter discusses lipids, which are organic compounds that are nonpolar or only slightly polar. There are several types of lipids, including waxes, fatty acids, glycerides, phospholipids, steroids, prostaglandins, and terpenes. Waxes are esters of long-chain fatty acids and alcohols. Glycerides are fatty acid esters of glycerol and include fats and oils. Phospholipids are glycerides with a phosphate group and are major components of cell membranes. Steroids include cholesterol, sex hormones, and anti-inflammatory drugs. Prostaglandins are hormone-like compounds derived from fatty acids. Terpenes are composed of repeating five-carbon
The document discusses the structure and properties of monosaccharides and polysaccharides. It describes how glucose is converted to sorbitol and mannitol through reduction with sodium amalgam. It also discusses the cyclic structures that monosaccharides like glucose and fructose form through intramolecular reactions, forming pyranoses and furanoses. Additionally, it describes common storage polysaccharides like starch and glycogen, noting that starch consists of amylose and amylopectin while glycogen serves as the main storage polysaccharide in animals.
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It discusses that carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature and an important source of energy for cells. Carbohydrates can also act as structural components and be involved in cell membranes, surface antigens, and extracellular substances. The document further describes different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It provides examples and characteristics of important carbohydrates such as glucose, fructose, sucrose, lactose, and glycogen. Reaction and derivatives of monosaccharides are also summarized.
This document discusses different types of alcohols including their classification, nomenclature, and methods of preparation. It describes how alcohols can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on if the hydroxyl group is attached to a primary, secondary, or tertiary carbon. It also discusses allylic and benzylic alcohols. Common methods for preparing alcohols include hydration of alkenes, hydroboration-oxidation of alkenes, reduction of carbonyl compounds, reduction of carboxylic acids and esters, and using Grignard reagents.
This document discusses synthetic polymers, including their classification, production methods, properties, and applications. It covers addition polymers formed through free radical, cationic, and anionic polymerization and condensation polymers like nylons, polyesters, polycarbonates, and polyurethanes. Key topics include the structures of polymers like polypropylene, polystyrene, and natural rubber; methods for controlling properties like crystallinity and plasticity; and major industrial polymers and their uses.
This ppt explains the structure of carbohydrates and its occurrence. It explains the linear chain structure, haworth projection, fischer projection and hemiacetal structure of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure. Monosaccharides are the simplest units and include aldoses and ketoses. Larger carbohydrates are formed from monosaccharide units linked together, including disaccharides with two units and polysaccharides with many units. Fischer projections are used to represent carbohydrate 3D structures in 2D and determine D/L stereochemistry. Carbohydrates commonly exist as cyclic furanose or pyranose rings with α and β anomers in equilibrium. Glycosidic linkages form between carbohydrate units in disaccharides and polysaccharides.
This chapter discusses carbohydrates and nucleic acids. It begins by describing how carbohydrates like starch and cellulose are synthesized by plants from glucose. Carbohydrates are then classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides based on whether they can be hydrolyzed into one, two, or many glucose units. The chapter also covers nucleic acids like RNA and DNA, which are polymers of ribose or deoxyribose linked by phosphate groups and bonded to nitrogenous bases. DNA consists of two antiparallel strands bonded through base pairing between complementary bases.
This chapter discusses lipids, which are organic compounds that are nonpolar or only slightly polar. There are several types of lipids, including waxes, fatty acids, glycerides, phospholipids, steroids, prostaglandins, and terpenes. Waxes are esters of long-chain fatty acids and alcohols. Glycerides are fatty acid esters of glycerol and include fats and oils. Phospholipids are glycerides with a phosphate group and are major components of cell membranes. Steroids include cholesterol, sex hormones, and anti-inflammatory drugs. Prostaglandins are hormone-like compounds derived from fatty acids. Terpenes are composed of repeating five-carbon
The document discusses the structure and properties of monosaccharides and polysaccharides. It describes how glucose is converted to sorbitol and mannitol through reduction with sodium amalgam. It also discusses the cyclic structures that monosaccharides like glucose and fructose form through intramolecular reactions, forming pyranoses and furanoses. Additionally, it describes common storage polysaccharides like starch and glycogen, noting that starch consists of amylose and amylopectin while glycogen serves as the main storage polysaccharide in animals.
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It discusses that carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature and an important source of energy for cells. Carbohydrates can also act as structural components and be involved in cell membranes, surface antigens, and extracellular substances. The document further describes different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It provides examples and characteristics of important carbohydrates such as glucose, fructose, sucrose, lactose, and glycogen. Reaction and derivatives of monosaccharides are also summarized.
This document discusses different types of alcohols including their classification, nomenclature, and methods of preparation. It describes how alcohols can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on if the hydroxyl group is attached to a primary, secondary, or tertiary carbon. It also discusses allylic and benzylic alcohols. Common methods for preparing alcohols include hydration of alkenes, hydroboration-oxidation of alkenes, reduction of carbonyl compounds, reduction of carboxylic acids and esters, and using Grignard reagents.
This document discusses synthetic polymers, including their classification, production methods, properties, and applications. It covers addition polymers formed through free radical, cationic, and anionic polymerization and condensation polymers like nylons, polyesters, polycarbonates, and polyurethanes. Key topics include the structures of polymers like polypropylene, polystyrene, and natural rubber; methods for controlling properties like crystallinity and plasticity; and major industrial polymers and their uses.
This ppt explains the structure of carbohydrates and its occurrence. It explains the linear chain structure, haworth projection, fischer projection and hemiacetal structure of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure. Monosaccharides are the simplest units and include aldoses and ketoses. Larger carbohydrates are formed from monosaccharide units linked together, including disaccharides with two units and polysaccharides with many units. Fischer projections are used to represent carbohydrate 3D structures in 2D and determine D/L stereochemistry. Carbohydrates commonly exist as cyclic furanose or pyranose rings with α and β anomers in equilibrium. Glycosidic linkages form between carbohydrate units in disaccharides and polysaccharides.
The document discusses carbohydrate structure and properties. It covers the biological and medical importance of carbohydrates, including their functions as energy stores and structural components. It also describes the chemical nature of carbohydrates as polyhydroxy alcohols with an aldehyde or keto group. Carbohydrate structure is examined using Fisher, Haworth and chair conformations. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides like disaccharides, and polysaccharides including homo- and heteropolysaccharides. Important monosaccharides, derivatives, disaccharides and polysaccharides are identified. Properties of monosaccharides such as isomerism, optical activity, epimerism, hemiacetal/ketal formation,
This document discusses different types of carbohydrate isomerism including enantiomers, anomers, epimers, and aldose and ketose isomers. It also describes sugar derivatives such as sugar acids produced by oxidation reactions, sugar alcohols formed by reduction of the carbonyl group, deoxysugars with one hydroxyl group replaced by hydrogen, and amino sugars with a hydroxyl group substituted with an amino group. Examples are provided to illustrate each type of isomerism and derivative.
1. Carbon is the backbone of biological molecules in living organisms and can form single, double, triple, or quadruple bonds.
2. Hydrocarbons like methane, ethane and ethene are molecules made of only carbon and hydrogen. Lipids, which do not form polymers, include fats and phospholipids.
3. Carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids are the four major classes of macromolecules that make up living things and carry out essential functions.
Fatty acids play key roles in metabolism as fuels, for energy storage and transport, and as components of cell membranes. They are classified by their level of saturation. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds. The structure of fatty acids consists of a carboxyl end, alpha and beta carbons, and an omega methyl end. Fatty acids are broken down through beta-oxidation to produce acetyl-CoA for energy. They can also undergo lipid peroxidation or saponification.
This document discusses IUPAC nomenclature rules for alcohols, ethers, and epoxides. It also summarizes common reactions of alcohols including dehydration, conversion to alkyl halides, and conversion to tosylates. Reactions of ethers with strong acids and epoxide ring opening reactions are also covered.
This document provides an introduction to carboxylic acids. It defines carboxylic acids as containing a carboxyl group, which is a carbon double-bonded to an oxygen and single-bonded to a hydroxyl group. It discusses the structure, naming conventions, physical properties including acidity, solubility, and higher boiling points of carboxylic acids compared to similar molecules due to hydrogen bonding between molecules. Examples of uses of carboxylic acids in soaps, foods, pharmaceuticals, and other industries are also provided.
Multiple Choice Questions with Explanatory Answers on Chemistry of Carbohydrates for Medical, Biochemistry and Biology students - Chapter 1 of Multiple Choice Questions in Biochemistry by RC Gupta
Carbohydrate, class of naturally occurring compounds and derivatives formed from them. In the early part of the 19th century, substances such as wood, starch, and linen were found to be composed mainly of molecules containing atoms of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).
Pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) is a mild oxidizing agent used to selectively oxidize primary alcohols to aldehydes and secondary alcohols to ketones. It has the formula [C5H5NH]+ [CrO3Cl]- and is a stable, commercially available reagent that is soluble in organic solvents and provides high yields in oxidation reactions. While effective, it can form viscous byproducts that complicate product isolation and the reagent itself is toxic.
Carboxylic acids have the general formula R-COOH. They can be synthesized through oxidation of alcohols and arenes, carbonation of Grignard reagents, and hydrolysis of nitriles. As acids, they ionize in water and react with bases. They can be converted to functional derivatives like acid chlorides, esters, and amides. They undergo reactions such as reduction, alpha-halogenation, and electrophilic aromatic substitution. Spectroscopically, they show a C=O stretch around 1700 cm-1 and a COOH proton around 12 ppm.
Explain chemical properties of alcohols by various chemical reactions
Define and explain preparation of ethers from alcohols by using chemical equations
1. Acid anhydrides are formed when two carboxylic acid molecules lose a water molecule. The simplest and most common acid anhydride is acetic anhydride.
2. Acid anhydrides can be prepared through various methods including the dehydration of carboxylic acids using a dehydrating agent or through the reaction of acid chlorides with carboxylic acids.
3. Acid anhydrides undergo hydrolysis to form carboxylic acids and can react with alcohols to form esters or with amines to form amides, making them useful for ester and amide synthesis. They also act as acylating agents in reactions like Friedel-
Preparation and Chemical Properties of Carboxylic AcidsKamran Mammadli
Learning Objectives:
1. Write the typical reactions of carboxylic acids
2. Explain how the reactions happen
3. Discuss the application of carboxylic acids
Learning Objectives
1. Know that Carboxylic acids contain the functional group -COOH
2. Understand how to draw structural and displayed formulae for Carboxylic Acids
3. 3. Predict physical properties of Carboxylic Acids
Carbohydrates its Classification, Isomerism, Characteristic and Chemical prop...SalmaAjmal
1. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules found in animals and plants, forming 1% of total body mass in humans. They include sugars, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
2. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are short chain polymers of two monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds.
3. Polysaccharides are long chain polymers that serve as energy stores. Starch, cellulose, and glycogen are examples of homopolysaccharides containing a single monosaccharide, while glycosaminoglycans are heteropolysaccharides with two or more
This document discusses alcohols and their properties. Alcohols contain a hydroxyl (-OH) group attached to a carbon atom. They can be primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on how many other groups are bonded to the carbon. Alcohols are polar and soluble in water. They can undergo oxidation reactions to form carboxylic acids and rearrangement reactions like the pinacol rearrangement. While alcohols are generally less acidic than acids or phenols, they are more acidic than alkynes, alkenes, or alkanes due to the stability of the anion formed when the hydroxyl hydrogen is lost.
This document provides information about alcohols, including their structure, nomenclature, and classification. It begins by reviewing hydrocarbons and noting that alcohols differ in that they contain an OH (hydroxyl) functional group. Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on whether the alcohol carbon is bonded to 1, 2, or 3 carbon atoms. Naming involves identifying the parent chain and lowest locant for the OH group. Examples of methanol, butanol, and isopropanol are provided to illustrate the nomenclature rules.
This document summarizes the structures, properties, and preparation of alcohols. It defines alcohols as organic compounds containing a hydroxyl group attached to an alkyl group, giving them both non-polar and polar regions. Alcohols can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the number of carbons bound to the hydroxyl carbon. Higher molecular weight alcohols have higher boiling points due to hydrogen bonding. Alcohols with shorter alkyl chains up to four carbons are water soluble, while longer chains are not. Common methods for preparing alcohols include hydration of alkenes, reduction of carboxylic acids and esters, and fermentation of sugars
Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides based on the number of sugar units present. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose can form cyclic structures through ring-forming reactions. Disaccharides are formed through glycosidic bond formation between the hemiacetal or hemiketal group of one monosaccharide and the hydroxyl group of another. Examples of common disaccharides include maltose, lactose, and sucrose, which differ in their specific monosaccharide components and glycosidic linkage positions and orientations.
The document discusses the cyclic structures of glucose and fructose and how they form hemiacetals. It explains that glucose forms D-glucopyranose and fructose forms D-fructofuranose. It also discusses anomers, mutarotation, and how glucose and fructose can interchange between alpha and beta forms. The document then covers various reactions of monosaccharides including glycoside formation, Koenigs-Knorr reaction, ester and ether formation, and oxidation reactions like bromine oxidation to form aldonic acids and nitric acid oxidation to form aldaric acids. It concludes by discussing non-reducing sugars and chain shortening/lengthening reactions like R
The document discusses carbohydrate structure and properties. It covers the biological and medical importance of carbohydrates, including their functions as energy stores and structural components. It also describes the chemical nature of carbohydrates as polyhydroxy alcohols with an aldehyde or keto group. Carbohydrate structure is examined using Fisher, Haworth and chair conformations. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides like disaccharides, and polysaccharides including homo- and heteropolysaccharides. Important monosaccharides, derivatives, disaccharides and polysaccharides are identified. Properties of monosaccharides such as isomerism, optical activity, epimerism, hemiacetal/ketal formation,
This document discusses different types of carbohydrate isomerism including enantiomers, anomers, epimers, and aldose and ketose isomers. It also describes sugar derivatives such as sugar acids produced by oxidation reactions, sugar alcohols formed by reduction of the carbonyl group, deoxysugars with one hydroxyl group replaced by hydrogen, and amino sugars with a hydroxyl group substituted with an amino group. Examples are provided to illustrate each type of isomerism and derivative.
1. Carbon is the backbone of biological molecules in living organisms and can form single, double, triple, or quadruple bonds.
2. Hydrocarbons like methane, ethane and ethene are molecules made of only carbon and hydrogen. Lipids, which do not form polymers, include fats and phospholipids.
3. Carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids are the four major classes of macromolecules that make up living things and carry out essential functions.
Fatty acids play key roles in metabolism as fuels, for energy storage and transport, and as components of cell membranes. They are classified by their level of saturation. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds. The structure of fatty acids consists of a carboxyl end, alpha and beta carbons, and an omega methyl end. Fatty acids are broken down through beta-oxidation to produce acetyl-CoA for energy. They can also undergo lipid peroxidation or saponification.
This document discusses IUPAC nomenclature rules for alcohols, ethers, and epoxides. It also summarizes common reactions of alcohols including dehydration, conversion to alkyl halides, and conversion to tosylates. Reactions of ethers with strong acids and epoxide ring opening reactions are also covered.
This document provides an introduction to carboxylic acids. It defines carboxylic acids as containing a carboxyl group, which is a carbon double-bonded to an oxygen and single-bonded to a hydroxyl group. It discusses the structure, naming conventions, physical properties including acidity, solubility, and higher boiling points of carboxylic acids compared to similar molecules due to hydrogen bonding between molecules. Examples of uses of carboxylic acids in soaps, foods, pharmaceuticals, and other industries are also provided.
Multiple Choice Questions with Explanatory Answers on Chemistry of Carbohydrates for Medical, Biochemistry and Biology students - Chapter 1 of Multiple Choice Questions in Biochemistry by RC Gupta
Carbohydrate, class of naturally occurring compounds and derivatives formed from them. In the early part of the 19th century, substances such as wood, starch, and linen were found to be composed mainly of molecules containing atoms of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).
Pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) is a mild oxidizing agent used to selectively oxidize primary alcohols to aldehydes and secondary alcohols to ketones. It has the formula [C5H5NH]+ [CrO3Cl]- and is a stable, commercially available reagent that is soluble in organic solvents and provides high yields in oxidation reactions. While effective, it can form viscous byproducts that complicate product isolation and the reagent itself is toxic.
Carboxylic acids have the general formula R-COOH. They can be synthesized through oxidation of alcohols and arenes, carbonation of Grignard reagents, and hydrolysis of nitriles. As acids, they ionize in water and react with bases. They can be converted to functional derivatives like acid chlorides, esters, and amides. They undergo reactions such as reduction, alpha-halogenation, and electrophilic aromatic substitution. Spectroscopically, they show a C=O stretch around 1700 cm-1 and a COOH proton around 12 ppm.
Explain chemical properties of alcohols by various chemical reactions
Define and explain preparation of ethers from alcohols by using chemical equations
1. Acid anhydrides are formed when two carboxylic acid molecules lose a water molecule. The simplest and most common acid anhydride is acetic anhydride.
2. Acid anhydrides can be prepared through various methods including the dehydration of carboxylic acids using a dehydrating agent or through the reaction of acid chlorides with carboxylic acids.
3. Acid anhydrides undergo hydrolysis to form carboxylic acids and can react with alcohols to form esters or with amines to form amides, making them useful for ester and amide synthesis. They also act as acylating agents in reactions like Friedel-
Preparation and Chemical Properties of Carboxylic AcidsKamran Mammadli
Learning Objectives:
1. Write the typical reactions of carboxylic acids
2. Explain how the reactions happen
3. Discuss the application of carboxylic acids
Learning Objectives
1. Know that Carboxylic acids contain the functional group -COOH
2. Understand how to draw structural and displayed formulae for Carboxylic Acids
3. 3. Predict physical properties of Carboxylic Acids
Carbohydrates its Classification, Isomerism, Characteristic and Chemical prop...SalmaAjmal
1. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules found in animals and plants, forming 1% of total body mass in humans. They include sugars, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
2. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are short chain polymers of two monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds.
3. Polysaccharides are long chain polymers that serve as energy stores. Starch, cellulose, and glycogen are examples of homopolysaccharides containing a single monosaccharide, while glycosaminoglycans are heteropolysaccharides with two or more
This document discusses alcohols and their properties. Alcohols contain a hydroxyl (-OH) group attached to a carbon atom. They can be primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on how many other groups are bonded to the carbon. Alcohols are polar and soluble in water. They can undergo oxidation reactions to form carboxylic acids and rearrangement reactions like the pinacol rearrangement. While alcohols are generally less acidic than acids or phenols, they are more acidic than alkynes, alkenes, or alkanes due to the stability of the anion formed when the hydroxyl hydrogen is lost.
This document provides information about alcohols, including their structure, nomenclature, and classification. It begins by reviewing hydrocarbons and noting that alcohols differ in that they contain an OH (hydroxyl) functional group. Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on whether the alcohol carbon is bonded to 1, 2, or 3 carbon atoms. Naming involves identifying the parent chain and lowest locant for the OH group. Examples of methanol, butanol, and isopropanol are provided to illustrate the nomenclature rules.
This document summarizes the structures, properties, and preparation of alcohols. It defines alcohols as organic compounds containing a hydroxyl group attached to an alkyl group, giving them both non-polar and polar regions. Alcohols can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the number of carbons bound to the hydroxyl carbon. Higher molecular weight alcohols have higher boiling points due to hydrogen bonding. Alcohols with shorter alkyl chains up to four carbons are water soluble, while longer chains are not. Common methods for preparing alcohols include hydration of alkenes, reduction of carboxylic acids and esters, and fermentation of sugars
Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides based on the number of sugar units present. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose can form cyclic structures through ring-forming reactions. Disaccharides are formed through glycosidic bond formation between the hemiacetal or hemiketal group of one monosaccharide and the hydroxyl group of another. Examples of common disaccharides include maltose, lactose, and sucrose, which differ in their specific monosaccharide components and glycosidic linkage positions and orientations.
The document discusses the cyclic structures of glucose and fructose and how they form hemiacetals. It explains that glucose forms D-glucopyranose and fructose forms D-fructofuranose. It also discusses anomers, mutarotation, and how glucose and fructose can interchange between alpha and beta forms. The document then covers various reactions of monosaccharides including glycoside formation, Koenigs-Knorr reaction, ester and ether formation, and oxidation reactions like bromine oxidation to form aldonic acids and nitric acid oxidation to form aldaric acids. It concludes by discussing non-reducing sugars and chain shortening/lengthening reactions like R
Notes on Aldehydes and Ketones - JEE Main 2014 Ednexa
Carbonyl compounds contain a carbon=oxygen double bond. They are divided into two types: aldehydes and ketones. Both have the general formula CnH2nO. Carbonyl compounds can be prepared through oxidation of alcohols, dehydrogenation of alcohols, distillation of carboxylate salts, decarboxylation/dehydration of carboxylic acids, hydrolysis of geminal dihalides, ozonolysis of alkenes, and through processes like the oxo and Wacker processes that start with alkenes.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They can be monosaccharides (simple sugars like glucose), oligosaccharides (containing 2-10 monosaccharide units like disaccharides lactose), or polysaccharides (polymers of monosaccharides like starch). Monosaccharides can undergo reactions like reduction, oxidation, dehydration, and osazone formation. Disaccharides include reducing sugars with a free aldehyde group like maltose, and non-reducing sugars without one like sucrose, which is composed of glucose and fructose bonded together. Sucrose hydrolysis by acids or enzymes produces the inverted mixture of glucose and fructose known as invert
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that are primarily produced by plants. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their structure. Monosaccharides are the simplest form and include both aldoses and ketoses containing an aldehyde or ketone functional group. Disaccharides yield two monosaccharide units upon hydrolysis, such as sucrose hydrolyzing to glucose and fructose. Polysaccharides are carbohydrates that yield many monosaccharide units when hydrolyzed and include non-sugars like starch and cellulose. Carbohydrates undergo mutarotation where their optical rotation changes as they reach
1. Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar molecules present.
2. Monosaccharides exist as both open-chain and ring forms, with the ring forms being more stable. The rings can be pyranoses or furanoses depending on whether they have 6 or 5 members.
3. Monosaccharides also exist as optical isomers called enantiomers that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other. Their naming depends on their relation to D-glyceraldehyde.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as an important energy source and structural component. There are three main types of carbohydrates: monosaccharides (simple sugars), disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Glucose is a common monosaccharide that exists as both an open chain and ring structure. Carbohydrates undergo chemical reactions like oxidation, reduction, and esterification. They also exhibit mutarotation when dissolved in water.
Amides are named by replacing the suffix -oic acid in the carboxylic acid name with -amide. Nitriles are named by adding the suffix -nitrile to the alkane name. The nitrile carbon is assigned position 1. α-Hydrogen atoms of carbonyl compounds are acidic due to stabilization of the resulting enolate anion. This allows for halogenation and reactions involving enolate intermediates, such as aldol condensations.
This chapter discusses carboxylic acids and their derivatives. It defines carboxylic acids as containing a carbonyl group bonded to a hydroxyl group. Carboxylic acids can be aliphatic or aromatic. Common and IUPAC naming methods are introduced. The chapter discusses the structures, properties, acidity, and reactions of carboxylic acids including esterification, acid chlorides, anhydrides, and amides. Spectroscopic data of carboxylic acids is also summarized.
This chapter discusses carboxylic acids and their derivatives. It defines carboxylic acids as containing a carbonyl group bonded to a hydroxyl group. Common properties described include higher boiling points than alcohols due to hydrogen bonding. Carboxylic acids can be synthesized through oxidation of alcohols or cleavage of alkenes. Derivatives include esters formed through Fischer esterification, acid chlorides, anhydrides, and amides.
This document provides an overview of carboxylic acids. It discusses the structure and properties of carboxylic acids, including their acidity, solubility, melting and boiling points. Methods of synthesis such as oxidation of alcohols and hydrolysis of nitriles are covered. Derivatives of carboxylic acids like esters, acid chlorides, and amides are introduced. Spectroscopic data and characteristic fragmentation patterns of carboxylic acids in mass spectrometry are also summarized.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their structure. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose cannot be broken down further, while disaccharides like sucrose are made of two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Carbohydrates may undergo isomerism due to asymmetric carbon atoms, existing as optical isomers like D-glucose and L-glucose that differ in their spatial arrangement.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate classification and structure. It discusses that there are three main classes of carbohydrates based on size: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides can exist as open-chain or cyclic structures and include important examples like glucose and fructose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds, with examples being maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides are high molecular weight polymers of monosaccharides and include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
This chapter discusses carbohydrates, which are distributed widely in nature and serve important structural and metabolic functions. Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar monomers present. Monosaccharides like glucose are the basic building blocks and exist in both open-chain and cyclic forms. Disaccharides join two monosaccharides, while polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharides like cellulose and starch. Carbohydrates play key roles in energy storage, structure of plants and organisms, and cell recognition through glycoproteins on cell surfaces.
Carbohydrates originate from photosynthesis and serve as a major energy source. They include sugars, starches, and structural components like cellulose. Carbohydrates can be classified based on their complexity, size, carbonyl functional group, and reactivity. Glucose is the most common monosaccharide, an aldohexose that is a reducing sugar. Emil Fischer determined glucose has the D configuration through chemical reactions and established nomenclature for carbohydrate stereochemistry.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate classification and structure. It begins by classifying carbohydrates as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides based on whether they hydrolyze into single sugars, two sugars, or many sugars. Key monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose are described. Cyclic ring structures of monosaccharides are explained. Important polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose composed of glucose monomers linked by glycosidic bonds are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of alcohols including their structure, nomenclature, physical properties, synthesis, and reactions. Alcohols contain an -OH group bonded to a carbon. They can be synthesized through hydration of alkenes, reduction of aldehydes/ketones/acids/esters, or Grignard reactions. Alcohols undergo reactions to form salts, alkyl halides, esters, aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids. Their properties and reactivity depend on whether the -OH group is bonded to a primary, secondary, or tertiary carbon.
The combination of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl on the same carbon atom is called a carboxyl group. Compounds containing the carboxyl group are called carboxylic acids. The carboxyl group is one of the most widely occurring functional groups in organic chemistry.
Aromatic Carboxylic acids: Carboxylic acids have an aryl group bound to the carboxyl group is known as aromatic carboxylic acids. The general formula of an aliphatic aromatic carboxylic acid is Ar-COOH.
Acidity of carboxylic acid:
A carboxylic acid may dissociate in water to give a proton and a carboxylate ion. Dissociation of a carboxylic acid involves breaking an O-H bond gives a carboxylate ion with the negative charge spread out equally over two oxygen atoms, compared with just one oxygen atom in an alkoxide ion. The delocalized charge makes the carboxylate ion more stable therefore; dissociation of a carboxylic acid to a carboxylate ion is less endothermic.
Preparation Methods:
1. Oxidation:
The oxidation of aldehyde with oxidizing agents such as CrO3 to forms carboxylic acids containing the same numbers of carbon atoms with a oxidizing agents like chromic acid, chromium trioxide. The silver oxide (Ag2O) in aqueous ammonia solution (Tollen’s reagent) is mild reagent give good yield at room temperature. E.g. Acetaldehyde reacts with CrO3 in aqueous acid to give acetic acid.
2. Grignard reagents (from CO2):
Carboxylic acid can be prepared by the reaction of Grignard reagent (alkyl magnesium halide) with carbon dioxide (CO2) in presence of dry ether. Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide to forms a magnesium carboxylates which on hydrolysis by dilute HCl produces carboxylic acids.
3. Hydrolysis of nitrile:
The hydrolysis of nitrile or cyanide in presence of dilute acid to forms a carboxylic acid. In this reaction –CN group is converted to a –COOH group.
4. Hydrolysis Reactions:
All the carboxylic acid derivatives can be hydrolyzed into the carboxylic acid in the acidic or basic media; the hydrolysis reaction is fast and occurs in presence of water with no acid or base catalyst.
1. From Ester (Hydrolysis of ester): Ester can be hydrolyzed in either acidic or basic medium to yield carboxylic acid. The ester is heated with an excess of water contains strong acid or base catalyst.
Properties of Carboxylic Acids:
1. Low molecular weights carboxylic acids are colourless liquid at room temperature i.e. lower member ate liquid up to C9 and have characteristic odors whereas higher members are solid.
2. Carboxylic acids are polar organic compound. Low molecular weight carboxylic acids (first four members) are soluble in water whereas solubility in water decrease as molecular weight and chain lengthing increases.
3. Aromatic acids are insoluble in water.
4. Carboxylic acids have higher melting and boiling point due to their capacity to readily form stable hydrogen-bonded dimers.
30.-Aldehydes-Ketones-and-Carboxylic-Acid.pdfrajat rajat
1. Aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids are important classes of organic compounds that contain a carbonyl group. Aldehydes contain a C=O bond with an H atom on the adjacent carbon. Ketones contain a C=O bond between two carbon atoms. Carboxylic acids contain a C=O bond bonded to an OH group.
2. These compounds can be prepared through oxidation of alcohols, from hydrocarbons using ozonolysis followed by hydrolysis, and from nitriles or acid chlorides using organometallic reagents. Aldehydes and ketones are generally more reactive than comparable saturated hydrocarbons due to the electron-withdrawing effects of the
This document summarizes Chapter 20 on carboxylic acid derivatives and their reactions. It discusses the nomenclature, structure, reactivity and preparation of acid derivatives including esters, acid chlorides, acid anhydrides, amides, and nitriles. Key reactions covered are nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions, hydrolysis, aminolysis, alcoholysis, and additions to the carbonyl group. Spectroscopic data for analysis of these compounds by IR, 1H NMR, and 13C NMR is also provided.
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This document discusses suffixes and terminology used in medicine. It begins by listing common combining forms used to build medical terms and their meanings. It then defines several noun, adjective, and shorter suffixes and provides their meanings. Examples are given of medical terms built using combining forms and suffixes. The document also examines specific medical concepts in more depth, such as hernias, blood cells, acromegaly, splenomegaly, and laparoscopy.
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This document is the copyright information for Chapter 25 on Cancer from the 6th edition of the textbook Molecular Cell Biology published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter was authored by a team that includes Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
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The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
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of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
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Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
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Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
2. Chapter 23 2
Carbohydrates
Synthesized by plants using sunlight to
convert CO2 and H2O to glucose and O2.
Polymers include starch and cellulose.
Starch is a storage unit for solar energy.
Most sugars have formula Cn(H2O)n,
“hydrate of carbon.”
3. Chapter 23 3
Classification of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides or simple sugars:
polyhydroxyaldehydes or aldoses
polyhydroxyketones or ketoses
Disaccharides can be hydrolyzed to two
monosaccharides.
Polysaccharides hydrolyze to many
monosaccharide units. For example,
starch and cellulose have > 1000
glucose units.
4. Chapter 23 4
Monosaccharides
Classified using three criteria:
If it contains a ketone or an aldehyde group.
Number of carbons in the chain.
Configuration of the asymmetric carbon farthest from the
carbonyl group.
5. Chapter 23 5
(+) and (-)-Glyceraldehydes
The (+) enantiomer of glyceraldehyde has its
OH group on the right of the Fischer
projection.
The (-) enantiomer of glyceraldehyde has its
OH group on the left of the Fischer projection.
6. Chapter 23 6
Degradation of D and L Sugars
Fischer–Rosanoff Convention
D sugars can be degraded to the dextrorotatory (+)
form of glyceraldehyde.
L sugars can be degraded to the levorotatory (-) form
of glyceraldehyde.
7. Chapter 23 7
D and L Series of Sugars
Sugars of the D series have the OH group of the
bottom asymmetric carbon on the right in the Fischer
projection.
Sugars of the L series, in contrast, have the OH
group of the bottom asymmetric carbon on the left.
9. Chapter 23 9
Erythrose and Threose
Erythrose is an aldotetrose with the OH groups of its
two asymmetric carbons on the same side of the
Fischer projection.
Threose is the diastereomer with the OH groups on
opposite sides of the Fischer projection.
D-(-)-erythrose D-(-)-threose
10. Chapter 23 10
Erythro and Threo Diastereomers
Erythro diastereomers have similar groups on
the same side of the Fischer projection.
Threo diastereomers have similar groups on
opposite sides of the Fischer projection.
11. Chapter 23 11
Symmetric Molecules
Erythro and threo are not used on molecules
with similar ends.
For symmetric molecules, the terms meso
and (d,l) are used.
12. Chapter 23 12
Epimers
Sugars that differ only in their
stereochemistry at a single carbon.
The carbon at which the stereochemistry
differs is usually specified.
13. Chapter 23 13
Cyclic Structure for Glucose
Glucose exists almost entirely as its cyclic hemiacetal
form.
Five- or six-membered ring hemiacetals are more
stable than their open-chain forms.
The Haworth projection, although widely used, may
give the impression of the ring being flat.
14. Chapter 23 14
Chair Conformation for Glucose
The chair conformations give a more accurate
representation of glucose.
Glucose exists almost entirely as its cyclic hemiacetal
form.
15. Chapter 23 15
Cyclic Structure for Fructose
Cyclic hemiacetal formed by reaction of C═O at C2
with —OH at C5.
Since five-membered rings are not puckered as much
as six-membered rings, they are usually depicted as
flat Haworth projections.
16. Chapter 23 16
Anomers of Glucose
The hydroxyl group on the anomeric (hemiacetal)
carbon is down (axial) in the α anomer and up
(equatorial) in the β anomer.
The β anomer of glucose has all its substituents in
equatorial positions.
The hemiacetal carbon is called the anomeric carbon,
easily identified as the only carbon atom bonded to
two oxygens.
17. Chapter 23 17
Anomers of Fructose
The α anomer of fructose has the anomeric
—OH group down, trans to the terminal
—CH2OH group.
The β anomer has the anomeric —OH group up, cis
to the terminal —CH2OH.
18. Chapter 23 18
Mutarotation
An aqueous solution of D-glucose contains an
equilibrium mixture of α-D-glucopyranose, β-D-
glycopyranose, and the intermediate open-chain
form.
Crystallization below 98°C gives the α anomer, and
crystallization above 98°C gives the β anomer.
19. Chapter 23 19
Base-Catalyzed Epimerization of
Glucose
Under basic conditions, stereochemistry is lost at the carbon
atom next to the carbonyl group.
The enolate intermediate is not chiral, so reprotonation can
produce either stereoisomer.
Because a mixture of epimers results, this stereochemical
change is called epimerization.
20. Chapter 23 20
Enediol Rearrangement
In base, the position of the carbonyl can shift.
Chemists use acidic or neutral solutions of sugars to
prevent this rearrangement.
21. Chapter 23 21
Reduction of Simple Sugars
C═O of aldoses or ketoses can be
reduced to C—OH by NaBH4 or H2/Ni.
Name the sugar alcohol by adding -itol
to the root name of the sugar.
Reduction of D-glucose produces
D-glucitol, commonly called D-sorbitol.
Reduction of D-fructose produces a
mixture of D-glucitol and D-mannitol.
22. Chapter 23 22
Reduction of Fructose
Reduction of fructose creates a new asymmetric
carbon atom, which can have either configuration.
The products are a mixture of glucitol and mannitol.
23. Chapter 23 23
Oxidation by Bromine
Bromine water oxidizes the aldehyde group of an
aldose to a carboxylic acid.
Bromine in water is used for this oxidation because it
does not oxidize the alcohol groups of the sugar and
it does not oxidize ketoses.
24. Chapter 23 24
Nitric Acid Oxidation
Nitric acid is a stronger oxidizing agent than bromine,
oxidizing both the aldehyde group and the terminal
—CH2OH group of an aldose to a carboxylic acid.
25. Chapter 23 25
Oxidation by Tollens Reagent
Aldoses have an aldehyde group, which reacts with Tollens
reagent to give an aldonic acid and a silver mirror.
Sugars that reduce Tollens reagent to give a silver mirror are
called reducing sugars.
Tollens test is used as a qualitative test for the identification of
aldehydes.
Silver
mirror
26. Chapter 23 26
Nonreducing Sugars
Glycosides are acetals, stable in base, so they do not
react with Tollens reagent.
Disaccharides and polysaccharides are also acetals,
nonreducing sugars.
27. Chapter 23 27
Formation of Glycosides
React the sugar with alcohol in acid.
Since the open-chain sugar is in equilibrium with its α-
and β-hemiacetal, both anomers of the acetal are
formed.
Aglycone is the term used for the group bonded to the
anomeric carbon.
28. Chapter 23 28
Aglycones
The group bonded to the anomeric carbon of a
glycoside is called an aglycone.
Some aglycones are bonded through an oxygen
atom (a true acetal), and others are bonded through
other atoms such as nitrogen.
29. Chapter 23 29
Methyl Ether Formation
Reaction of the sugar with methyl iodide and silver
oxide will convert the hydroxides to methyl ethers.
The methylated sugar is stable in base.
30. Chapter 23 30
Acetate Ester Formation
Acetic anhydride with pyridine catalyst converts all
the oxygens to acetate esters.
Esters are readily crystallized and purified.
31. Chapter 23 31
Osazone Formation
Most osazones are easily crystallized and
exhibit sharp melting points.
Melting points of osazone derivatives provide
valuable clues for the identification and
comparison of sugars.
• Two molecules of phenylhydrazine condense
with each molecule of the sugar to give an
osazone, in which both C1 and C2 have been
converted to phenylhydrazones.
33. Chapter 23 33
Ruff Degradation
The Ruff degradation is a two-step process that
begins with the bromine water oxidation of the aldose
to its aldonic acid.
Treatment of the aldonic acid with hydrogen peroxide
and ferric sulfate oxidizes the carboxyl group to CO2
and gives an aldose with one less carbon atom.
34. Chapter 23 34
Kiliani–Fischer Synthesis
The Kiliani–Fischer synthesis lengthens an aldose
carbon chain by adding one carbon atom to the
aldehyde end of the aldose.
This synthesis is useful both for determining the
structure of existing sugars and for synthesizing new
sugars.
35. Chapter 23 35
Fischer’s Proof
Emil Fischer determined the
configuration around each chiral carbon
in D-glucose in 1891, using Ruff
degradation and oxidation reactions.
He assumed that the —OH is on the right
in the Fischer projection for
D-glyceraldehyde.
This guess turned out to be correct!
36. Chapter 23 36
Determination of Ring Size
Haworth determined the pyranose structure of glucose
in 1926.
The anomeric carbon can be found by complete
methylation of the —OHs, then hydrolysis of the acetal
methyl group.
O
H
OH
H
HO
HO
H
OH
H
C
H
H2OH
excess CH3I
Ag2O O
H
OCH3
H
CH3O
CH3O
H
O
HH
C
CH3
H2OCH3
H3O
+
O
H
OH
H
CH3O
CH3O
H
O
HH
C
CH3
H2OCH3
37. Chapter 23 37
Periodic Acid Cleavage of
Carbohydrates
Periodic acid cleaves vicinal diols to give two
carbonyl compounds.
Separation and identification of the products
determine the size of the ring.
38. Chapter 23 38
Disaccharides
Three naturally occurring glycosidic
linkages:
1-4’ link: The anomeric carbon is bonded
to oxygen on C4 of second sugar.
1-6’ link: The anomeric carbon is bonded
to oxygen on C6 of second sugar.
1-1’ link: The anomeric carbons of the two
sugars are bonded through an oxygen.
40. Chapter 23 40
A β-1-4’ Glycosidic Linkage
In cellobiose, the anomeric carbon of one glucose
unit is linked through an equatorial (β) carbon-oxygen
bond to C4 of another glucose unit.
This is called a β-1-4’ glycosidic linkage.
41. Chapter 23 41
An α-1,4’ Glucosidic Linkage
Maltose contains a 1,4’ glucosidic linkage between
the two glucose units.
The monosaccharides in maltose are joined together
by the axial position of C1 and the equatorial position
of C4'.
42. Chapter 23 42
Lactose: A β-1,4' Galactosidic
Linkage
Lactose is composed of one galactose unit and one
glucose unit.
The two rings are linked by a β-1,4’ glycosidic bond
of the galactose acetal to the 4-position on the
glucose ring: a β-1,4’ galactosidic linkage.
43. Chapter 23 43
Gentiobiose
Two glucose units linked 1,6’.
Rare for disaccharides, but commonly seen as
branch point in carbohydrates.
44. Chapter 23 44
Sucrose: Linkage of Two
Anomeric Carbons
Some sugars are
joined by a direct
glycosidic linkage
between their
anomeric carbon
atoms: a 1,1’
linkage.
45. Chapter 23 45
Cellulose
Cellulose is a β-1,4’ polymer of D-glucose,
systematically named poly(1,4’-O-β-D-
glucopyranoside).
Cellulose is the most abundant organic material.
It is synthesized by plants as a structural material to
support the weight of the plant.
46. Chapter 23 46
Amylose
Amylose is an α-1,4’ polymer of glucose,
systematically named poly(1,4’-O-α-D-
glucopyranoside).
48. Chapter 23 48
Nucleic Acids
Polymer of ribofuranoside
rings linked by phosphate
ester groups.
Each ribose is bonded to
a base.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA)
49. Chapter 23 49
RNA Polymer
Nucleic acids are
assembled on a
backbone made up of
ribofuranoside units
linked by phosphate
esters.
50. Chapter 23 50
Cytidine, Uridine, Adenosine, and
Guanosine
Ribonucleosides are components of RNA
based on glycosides of the furanose form of
D-ribose.
51. Chapter 23 51
Common Ribonucleotides
Ribonucleosides esterified by phosphoric acid at their
5’-position, the —CH2OH at the end of the ribose
chain.
Ribonucleosides are joined together by phosphate
ester linkages.
52. Chapter 23 52
Phosphate Linkages
A molecule of RNA
always has two ends
(unless it is in the
form of a large ring);
one end has a free
3' group, and the
other end has a free
5' group.
53. Chapter 23 53
DNA Bases
The four common bases of DNA are cytosine,
thymine, adenine, and guanine.
54. Chapter 23 54
Structure of DNA
β-D-2-deoxyribofuranose is the sugar.
Heterocyclic bases are cytosine,
thymine (instead of uracil), adenine,
and guanine.
Linked by phosphate ester groups to
form the primary structure.
55. Chapter 23 55
Base Pairing in DNA and RNA
Each purine forms a stable hydrogen-bonded pair
with a specific pyrimidine base.
Guanine hydrogen-bonds to cytosine in three places;
adenine hydrogen-bonds to thymine in two places.
56. Chapter 23 56
Antiparallel Strands of DNA
DNA usually consists of two complementary strands,
with all the base pairs hydrogen-bonded together.
The two strands are antiparallel, running in opposite
directions.
57. Chapter 23 57
The Double Helix
Two complementary
strands are joined by
hydrogen bonds
between the base pairs.
This double strand coils
into a helical
arrangement. Described
by Watson and Crick in
1953.