1. The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 2 of Organizational Behavior, including biographical characteristics, types of ability, theories of learning, and methods for shaping behavior. It discusses how factors like age, gender, and tenure can impact job performance and satisfaction. 2. Three major theories of learning are described: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory. Operant conditioning explains how behaviors are learned through reinforcement and punishment. 3. Techniques for modifying behavior in organizations are outlined, including positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Schedules of reinforcement like continuous, fixed interval, and variable ratio are also summarized.

1. Foundation of Individual
Behavior
Chapter 2
1–1
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez
Organizational Behavior
Stephen P. Robbins
T E N T H E D I T I O N

2. Chapter Learning ObjectivesChapter Learning Objectives
 After studying this chapter you should be able to:
1. Define the key biographical characteristics and describe how they are
relevant to OB.
2. Identify two types of ability
3. Shape the behavior of others
4. Distinguish between the four schedules of reinforcement
5. Clarify the role of punishment in learning
6. How rewards impact attendance
7. How biographical characteristics (such as gender and age) and ability
effect employees performance and satisfaction.
2-2
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez

3. Biographical CharacteristicsBiographical Characteristics
Personal characteristics—such as age, gender, and marital status—that are
objective and easily obtained from personnel records.
•Age:
– Older workers bring experience, judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality.
•Gender:
– Few differences between men and women that affect job performance.
•Marital status:
– No enough research to show the effect of marital status on productivity – but there are
evidences that married people have fever absences, undergo less turnover and are more
satisfied with their jobs.
•Tenure:
– Tenure and job satisfaction are positively related.
– Seniority and job productivity have positive relationship.
– Seniority is negatively related to absenteeism.
– The longer a person stays in a job is less likely to quit the job, has more productivity, and
more satisfied.
•Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself):
– Contentious issue: differences exist, but could be more culture-based than race-based.
2-4
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez

4. What is ability?What is ability?
Ability? An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.
Not all individuals are equal in terms of abilities, each has strength and weaknesses.
Types of Ability?
1.Intellectual Ability
2.Physical Ability
1.Intellectual Ability: (plays an important role in complex jobs demanding information
process)
• The abilities needed to perform mental activities.
• No correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction.
•IQ (intelligence Quotient): tests are designed to ascertain one’s general intellectual abilities.
For instance Universities entrance exams.
The website:
1.http://www.free-iqtest.net/
2.https://www.123test.com/iq-test/
2-5
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez

5. Dimensions of Intellectual AbilityDimensions of Intellectual Ability
The seven most frequently cited dimension making up intellectual
abilities are:
1.Number Aptitude
2.Verbal Comprehension
3.Perceptual Speed
4.Deductive Reasoning (explanation in the next slides)
5.Inductive Reasoning (explanation in the next slides)
6.Spatial Visualization
7.Memory
Note: for more detailed explanation refer to the chart from the book
2-6
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez

6. Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning
1. Deduction: is a form of argument that purports to be conclusive. The
conclusion must necessarily follow the reasons given.
2. Deductive Reasoning (Reasoning from the general to the particular (or from
cause to effect) for instance:
 All human beings are mortal. Premises-1
 Shah is a human being. Premises-2
 Therefore Shah is mortal. Conclusion
Note: a deduction is valid if it is impossible for conclusion to be false if the
premises are true.
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez 2–7

7. Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning
Induction:
1.inductive argument is radically different. There is no such strength of relationship between reasons and
conclusions in induction.
2.In induction you draw a conclusion from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence. The conclusion
explains the facts and the facts support the conclusion.
Example: the company spent money on sales promotion but sales didn’t increase. Now we investigate this
situation.
1.Why didn’t sales increase? Fact
2.The answer to this question can be many and each answer (conclusion) in this case becomes a hypothesis
which could either be true or false and which would need further investigation.
We assume that:
1.The promotional campaign was poorly executed. (conclusion-1) (hypothesis-1)
2.A strike by the employees of our trucking firm prevented stock from arriving in time for promotion to be
effective. (Conclusion-2) (hypothesis-2)
3.A strong rain closed all our retailers locations in the region for 10 days during the promotion. (conclusion-3)
(Hypothesis-3)
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez 2–8

8. 2–10
What is Learning?What is Learning?
Learning: is any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.
1.All complex behaviors are learned
2.To explain and predict behavior we need to understand how people learn.
Learning
1.Involves change (could be good or bad)
2.Is relatively permanent
3.Is acquired through experience (direct or indirect observation)
Key Concepts
•Reflexive behavior: unlearned behavior
•Conditioned behavior: learned behavior
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez

9. Three Theories of LearningThree Theories of Learning
1. Classical Conditioning
– A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that
would not ordinarily produce such a response.
– It is elicited in response to a specific identifiable event. It can explain simple
reflexive behavior.
Pavlov’s Dog Drool - Key Concepts:
– Unconditioned stimulus: A naturally occurring phenomenon.
– Unconditioned response: The naturally occurring response to a natural stimulus.
– Conditioned stimulus: An artificial stimulus introduced into the situation.
– Conditioned response: The response to the artificial stimulus.
Note: This is a passive form of learning. It is reflexive and not voluntary – not the best
theory for OB learning.
2-11
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez

10. Three Theories of LearningThree Theories of Learning
2. Operant Conditioning: A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment
1.Argues that behavior is a function of its consequences –
1.Emitted & volunteer behavior such as choosing to arrive at work on time,
asking boss for assistance or goof off when no one is watching are explained
by operant learning.
2.People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something
they do not want.
Continues ……….
2-12
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez

11. Three Theories of LearningThree Theories of Learning
3. Social-Learning Theory:
Based on the idea that people can also learn indirectly: by observation,
reading, or just hearing about someone else’s experiences.
•Key Concepts:
1.Attentional processes
• Must recognize and pay attention to critical features to learn
1.Retention processes
• Model’s actions must be remembered to be learned
1.Motor reproduction processes
• Watching the model’s behavior must be converted to doing
1.Reinforcement processes
• Positive incentives motivate learners
2-14
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez

12. A Managerial ToolA Managerial Tool
Shaping:
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual
closer to the desired response.
Four Methods of Shaping the Behavior:
1. Positive reinforcement: Providing a reward for a desired behavior (learning)
2. Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant consequence when the
desired behavior occurs (learning)
3. Punishment: Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable
behavior (unlearning)
4. Extinction: Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation
(unlearning)
2-15
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez

13. Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement
Two Major Types of reinforcement schedules:
1.Continuous Reinforcement:
• A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated
1.Intermittent Reinforcement:
• A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it
is demonstrated
A reinforcement can also be classified as fixed or variable:
1.Fixed-Interval Schedule:
• Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals or after a set number of responses.
1.Variable-interval schedule:
• Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.
1.Fixed-ratio schedule:
• Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses
ØVariable-ratio schedule:
• The rewards varies relative to the behavior of the individual
2-16
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez

14. Behavior Modification (known as OB Mod)Behavior Modification (known as OB Mod)
• The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in
the work setting.
• Follows the Five-Step Problem-Solving Model:
– Identify critical behaviors
– Develop baseline data
– Identify behavioral consequences
– Develop and implement an intervention strategy
– Evaluate performance improvement
2-17
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez

15. 2–18
Some Specific Organizational ApplicationsSome Specific Organizational Applications
 Well Pay versus Sick Pay
 Reduces absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not absence.
 Employee Discipline
 The use of punishment can be counter-productive.
 Developing Training Programs
 OB MOD methods improve training effectiveness.
 Self-management
– Reduces the need for external management control.
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez

16. Problems with OB ModProblems with OB Mod
• OB Mod ignores thoughts and feelings.
• OB Mod may not explain complex behaviors that involve
thinking and feeling.
2-19
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez

17. Global Implications: Summary and Managerial ImplicationsGlobal Implications: Summary and Managerial Implications
 Ability:
 Directly influences employee’s level of performance
 Managers need to focus on ability in selection, promotion, and transfer.
 Biographical Characteristics
 Not much evidence on the global relevance of the relationships described in this
chapter.
 Countries do vary dramatically in their biographical composition.
 Should not be used in management decisions: possible source of bias.
 Learning
 Again, not much evidence currently exists – we cannot generalize at this point.
 Reinforcement works better than punishment
2-20
KDR University, PA Faculty, Organizational Behavior
Chapter-2, Lecture by: Barai Mobarez