This document summarizes recent research on pasta production technologies from studies published internationally. It discusses technologies like microwaves, high pressure processing, and modified atmosphere packaging that can help meet consumer demands for convenient, easy to use pasta products while maintaining quality and safety. Specifically, it outlines studies that found microwaves and high pressure processing can effectively pasteurize fresh pasta without negatively impacting flavor, and that modified atmosphere packaging can extend the shelf life of fresh pasta and gnocchi when stored at positive temperatures. The document also reviews research on factors that influence starch gelatinization and retrogradation in pasta dough, as well as non-enzymatic browning reactions, and how processing techniques like freezing and drying impact starch properties.

1. L1N16P079 www.professionalpasta.it profpast@tin.it
34
What is today’s pasta consumer
looking for? What are his or her
needs? And, above all, how are
these to be met?
The rapid, continuous evolu-
tion of the pasta sector begs
these questions, a sector which
has recently seen a net increase
in consumption, especially of
fresh pasta, according to data
prepared by the UN.I.P.I. (Asso-
ciation of Italian Pasta Manufac-
turers) for the year 2000.
Products that are easy to use
and quick to prepare are the
primary requests made of
manufacturers who often risk
being excluded from the market
because of lack of technological
resources and technical support
available to them.
In recent years, in response to
consumer demand, new prod-
ucts have been developed that
are highly innovative, yet still
firmly anchored in tradition.
This has caused a series of
new technological problems,
starting from the planning
stage of new products and
ranging up to stabilization
methods.
From the research carried out,
extremely interesting and
original data have emerged,
especially with regard to the
topics discussed below.
TRACKING DOWN NEW RESEARCH AND APPLICATION
PROSPECTS
by Ilaria Soncini - Alessio Marchesani
The Institute for Alimentary Technology at the University of Parma has recently arranged with the publish-
ers, Nuova Editrice, for study grant program to be held at the editorial offices of Professional Pasta for
members of the Masters program on alimentary safety and hygiene organized by the Institute.
As the scope of the grant, it was decided to carry out a study into recently-published international scientific
material that deals with some of the most important and timely technological themes bearing directly or indi-
rectly on the production of pasta products. What is the motivation behind this choice?
Studies and results of scientific research relating to pasta products normally appear in specialist publica-
tions that are only rarely read by sector manufacturers, except for those firms which have a well-established
R&D activity. Because of this, it was felt that a “snapshot” of the work carried out over recent years by
researchers around the world and published in technical and scientific publications could prove useful for
those active in the pasta-making sector, as well as Professional Pasta member-firms.
The article published below offers an annotated synthesis of the results of this survey carried out by the
alimentary technologists taking part in the program at Professional Pasta — Drs. Ilaria Soncini and Alessio
Marchesani — giving specific information regarding the direction the production of pasta products is
following with regard to specific process technologies and some of the chemical-physical phenomena that
most directly apply to certain types of pasta, for example gluten-free pasta and that obtained from raw mate-
rials other than wheat and cereals.
The bibliography that appears at the end of the article provides further information and aid in the dissemina-
tion of the research undertaken on an international level for the specific issues examined as part of the study
carried out by the participants of the apprenticeship program.
This bibliography is available at the Internet site of Professional Pasta at the following address:
www.professionalpasta.it/dir_2/abstracts/4_dida00.htm

2. Microwaves
Microwave technology has been
in use for some time on a domes-
tic level, but took longer to be
adopted on an industrial level
because of practical consider-
ations regarding, above all, plant
and product type. A number of
studies are available that make it
possible to evaluate its efficacy
and usefulness.
One of these studies analyzed the
positive effects on the shelf-life of
fresh filled pasta in which the
second pasteurization treatment
(following packaging) was
worked out by microwaves.
Results showed a significant
reduction in microbe presence
(comparable to that obtained
with traditional methods) which
guaranteed increased stability
over time thanks to the damage
to bacteria cells caused by the
microwaves (Lopez, C.C. et al.,
1998).
The microwaves used in thermal
treatment of the product reduce
the time and energy required so
that they have less impact on the
product’s organoleptic and nutri-
tional characteristics. Nonethe-
less, the interaction between the
food/packaging/microwaves, as
well as any negative effects, are
not well known. In frozen
spaghetti heated in a microwave
oven, flavour loss reached very
high levels, as high as 50% in
some samples (Roberts, D.D. et
al., 1997).
Another factor that should not be
underestimated is the size of the
product to be treated. In fact,
heating is dependent upon on
the size and shape of the sample,
as well as radiation frequency. In
particular, radiation penetration
and absorption power are greater
at lower frequencies (Oliveira,
M.E.C. et al., 2000).
High pressure
High pressure has been under
study for quite some time
because of the innovative impact
it could have on the food indus-
try, both from the standpoint of
plant requirements and quality.
A wide range of products may be
treated, but they must have
certain basic characteristics:
minimum water content, not
overly-excessive porosity (given
temporary deformation during
treatment) and they must be
packaged in flexible packing
material. This technique makes it
possible to treat semi-processed
products in quite large-sized
packages, as well as foods
destined for individual
consumption. It also has a
low environmental impact
because it does not produce
polluting emissions.
Much research has been
published on low-acid food-
stuffs sterilized using high
pressure and low tempera-
ture. Included are data on
the reduction of Bacillus
stearothermophilus (one of the
most heat-resistant bacte-
ria), in the order of 6 decimal
points with a treatment of
600 MPa and 70°C tempera-
ture for 5 minutes, repeated
5 times (Hayakawa, I. et al.,
1994).
35
L1N16P079 www.professionalpasta.it profpast@tin.it
Ilaria Soncini
Born in Parma on 12 July 1976, in
April 2001 she was awarded a
degree in Alimentary Science and
Technology from the University of
Parma, presenting a thesis
prepared in the meat microbiol-
ogy laboratory of SSICA in Parma.
She has already worked in the
area of quality control for a
number of food packaging firms.
As part of the second level of her
“Food Safety Expert” masters
degree, she is participating in the
work-study program at “Nuova
Editrice”.
Alessio Marchesani
Born in Lanciano (CH) on 3 Febru-
ary 1976, in April 2001 he was
awarded a degree in Alimentary
Science and Technology from the
University of Parma. His thesis
was prepared in the Department
of Biochemistry and Molecular
Biology, where he later was
awarded a scholarship to
continue his studies. As part of the
second level of his “Food Safety
Expert” masters degree, he is
participating in the work-study
program at “Nuova Editrice”.

3. Other methods (Pulsed High
Pressure, PHP) utilize cycles at
initially low pressure (60 MPa)
and then higher (500 MPa) at a
T of 70°C. When the cycle is
repeated approx. 10 times,
even any spores that might be
present are eliminated, since
the spores that can germinate
between cycles are rendered
inactive by the subsequent
cycle (Sojka, B. et al., 1997).
In one of the most recent stud-
ies (Meyer, R.S. et al., 2000), as a
result of numerous tests, the
ideal conditions for use to
obtain sanitization of certain
products (e.g., pasta with
cheese) are given. Stocks of
Clostridium sporogenes and
Bacillus cereus were used to
indicate if the treatment had
taken place, with emphasis
placed on the initial spore level,
working times and tempera-
tures, as well as the number of
cycles.
Using relatively low tempera-
tures, it is obvious that the final
product quality will be better,
but this also depends on the
quality of the packaging
(specially designed and
adapted to the chemi-
cal-physical characteristics of
the product) and the fluid
utilized to create the pressure.
In the pasta industry, this type
of treatment could be suitable
for “mild” pasteurization of
packaged fresh pasta or
pasta-based convenience foods
whose organoleptic character-
istics are significantly affected
by heating at higher tempera-
tures.
Fresh pasta: new perspectives
The use of sodium chloride in
the dough of pasta to be lami-
nated (approx. 4%), has
produced an extension of
shelf-life, but without altering
its original organoleptic prop-
erties (Guarnieri, R., 1996).
A filled pasta has been formu-
lated that is pre-cooked, at
high-moisture, refrigerated or
stable at ambient temperature
with acidification, in which the
effect of the lowering of water
activity(lessthan0.93)hasbeen
combined with a moisture level
less than 55%. Stability at ambi-
ent temperature is also aided
by a pH level under 5.2. From
an organoleptic standpoint, the
product obtained is fully
acceptable. In fact, it is
microbiologically stable at
room temperature for 37 days
and ready to use after being
boiled in water for just 3
minutes (Bajracharya, R. et al.,
1999).
Modified atmosphere (MAP) and
fresh pasta
Monitoring of parameters such as
wateractivity(Aw)andpHinfilled
fresh pasta and gnocchi (potato
dumplings), packaged in modi-
fied atmosphere, pointed out the
danger of production of the
Clostridium botulinum toxin under
inadequate warehousing condi-
tions (for example, at tempera-
tures over 30°C). Recommended
valuesforAw andpHtoguarantee
levels of microbiological safety
deemed acceptable were given
(Schebor, C. et al., 2000).
Theinfluenceofpackagingopera-
tions on the optimization of
organoleptic and nutritional qual-
ity were evaluated. In addition,
the content of resistant starch that
formed following retrogradation
doesnotseemtohavebeenmuch
different from that formed in
frozen products. The use of MAP
at positive temperatures guaran-
tees enhanced product structure
in comparison with frozen prod-
ucts (Leopardi, E. et al., 1994).
36
L1N16P079 www.professionalpasta.it profpast@tin.it

4. Secondary reactions and
phenomena in pasta-making
Of major importance is study
into redox phenomena of the
pasta caused by oxidoreductase
and, above all, how these reac-
tions interact during
pasta-making.
The study of the activity of
peroxidase, polyphenoloxidase,
lipoxygenase and catalase
enzymes has made it possible to
better understand the produc-
tion phases in which their effects
becomerelevantwithregardtoa
number of pasta-specific charac-
teristics such as colour and cook-
ing quality.
The role of easily-oxidizable
polyunsaturated fatty acids
that lead to a negative evolu-
tion in organoleptic and, above
all, structural quality (impact-
ingnegativelyonviscoelasticity
and stickiness of the pasta
during cooking) was studied.
Also equally important is the
study of the impact of redox
phenomenon on the structural
properties of the gluten. The
studylookedattheevolutionof
phenolic compounds and
carotenoid pigments that cause
a loss of colour (yellow) and
brilliancy in the final product
(Icard, C. et al., 1997).
The non-enzymatic darkening
results (caused by the Maillard
reaction) bring about a reduc-
tion in the product’s chromatic
properties. This is certainly not
welcome to manufacturers
who know that consumers also
“buys with their eyes”.
In terms of colour formation, it
would seem that the major
responsibility goes to the
newly-formed compounds of
low molecular weight, rather
than the melaniodins. This is all
directly correlated to the inten-
sity of the heat treatment
(Fogliano, V. et al., 1999).
Starch and its modifications:
effects of drying and
deep-freezing, effects of
gelatinization on the dough,
gluten-free doughs
Gelatinization: tests performed
on cornstarch at different
temperature and moisture
levels showed a strong influ-
ence of the starch/water ratio;
results were obtained by
measuring the apparent
specific heat of the starch and
the maximum gelatinization
value was obtained at a
moisture level of 42.3%
(Hwang, C.H. et al., 1999).
The starch extracted from frac-
tionated hard wheat semolina
was subjected to specific treat-
ments whose purpose was to
modify the gelatinization level
and technological properties. It
was then utilized, reuniting it
with the other components of
the semolina, to produce
spaghetti on which qualitative
calculations were made. An
increase in starch ramification
enhanced pasta structure,
while its fragility remained
unchanged. The following
factors were seen to be of major
importance: the starch
hydration level and its interac-
tion with the gluten, especially
during cooking (Delcour, J.A. et
al., 2000).
Production and preservation
technologies influence the
gelatinization and retrograda-
tion processes, which directly
condition the formation of
resistant starch. In fact, slight
variations in treatment param-
eters (water/sample ratio,
mixing, time and temperature)
can have a significant impact
on this, as can other factors
such as quantity and type of
starch, cooking and cooling
methods, pH and presence of
other components (proteins,
lipids, etc.). Through a range of
experimental tests, it was possi-
ble to optimize production
parameters to obtain a high
yield of resistant starch to be
utilized as an alimentary ingre-
dient (Garcia-Alonso, A. et al.,
1999).
Deep-freezing and Drying: tests
performed on potatoes at a
range of relative moisture
levels showed a modification at
the level of starch granules. The
gels formed by frozen,
non-dried potatoes were
slightly more viscous and less
prone to retrogradation that
those formed by dried pota-
toes. Deep-freezing slightly
diminishes starch solubility in
water. This would indicate
improved macroscopic organi-
zation of the granule caused by
the formation of a given number
of inter- or intramolecular
hydrogen bonds. It could be
inferred that, as a result of
freezing, the water inside the
granule as it expands creates
larger-sized pores, thus facili-
tating the movement of the
amylopectin present on the
inside to rise to the surface.
These phenomena aid in later
rehydration of the starch in
dried samples (Szymonska, J. et
al., 2000).
The freezing of hydrated starch
granules leads to a reversible
compression of the linear struc-
tures caused by the expansion
of the ice crystals.
The reticulated starch can
compensateforthisbyactingas
a “shock-absorber” (Perry, P.A.
et al., 2000).
37
L1N16P079 www.professionalpasta.it profpast@tin.it

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Altafini C., Furini M. (1997). Robust contol of flash dryer plant.
Proceedings of the 1997 IEEE, Int. Conference on control applica-
tions Hartford, CT-oct. 5-7.
Bajracharya R., Cherian G., Wyant L.B. (1999). Preparation of
shelf-stablefilledpastas. United States Patent 6,001,405 14/12/99.
Batisti L., Pusterla S., Pollini, C.M. (1995). Trattamento termico
della pasta fresca. Tecnica molitoria, 10.
Carvalho C.W.P., Mitchell J.R. (2000). Effect of sugar on the
extrusion of maize grits and wheat flour. Int. J. of Food Science and
Technology, 35, pp 569-576.
De Cindio B., Celot F., Migliori M., Pollini C.M. (2001). A simple
rheological model to predict filled fresh pasta failure during heat
treatment. J. of Food Engineering, 48, pp 7-18.
De Cindio B., Gabriele D. Pollini C.M. (2000). Modellazione
della pastorizzazione di pasta fresca ripiena. Tecnica molitoria, 7.
Del Nobile M.A., Massera M. (2002). A method to evaluate the
extent of residual deformations in dry spaghetti. J. of Food Engi-
neering, article in press.
Delcour J.A., Vansteelandt J., Hythier M.C., Abécassis J. (2000).
Fractionation and reconstitution experiments provide insight into the
role of starch gelatinization and pasting properties in pasta quality. J.
Agric. Food Chem., 48, pp 3774-3778.
Delcour J.A., Vansteelandt J., Hythier M.C., Abécassis J., Sindic
M., Deroanne C. (2000). Fractionation and reconstitution experi-
mentsprovideinsight intotheroleofglutenandstarchinteractionsin
pasta quality. J. Agric. Food Chem., 48, pp 3767-3773.
Dos Reis Tassinari A., Landgraf M. (1997). Effect of microwave
heating on survival of Salmonella typhimurium in artificially contami-
nated ready-to-eat foods. J. of Food Safety, 17, pp 239-248.
Feneey K.A., Tatham S., Gilbert S.M., Fido R.J., Halford N.G.,
Shewry P.R. (2001). Synthesis, expression and characterisation of
peptides comprised of perfect repeat motifs based on a wheat seed
storage protein. BBA- Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1546, pp
346-355.
Fogliano V., Monti S.M., Musella T., Randazzo G., Ritieni A.
(1999). Formation of coloured Maillard reactions products in a
gluten-glucose model system. Food Chemistry, 66, pp 293-299.
García-Alonso A., Jiménez-Escrig A., Martín-Carrón N., Bravo
L., Saura-Calixto F. (1999). Assessment of some parameters
involved in the gelatinization and retrogration of starch. Food
Chemistry, 66, pp 181-187.
Gilbert S., Wellner N., Belton P.S., Greenfield J.A., Siligardi G.,
Shewry P.R., Tatham A.S. (2000). Expression and characterisation of
a highly repetitive peptide derived from a wheat seed storage
protein. BBA- Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1479, pp 135-146.
Guarnieri R. (1996). Method of making sheet dough for long-life
fresh pasta products. United States Patent 5,573,796, 12/11/96.
Güler S., Köksel H., Ng P.K.W. (2002). Effects of industrial pasta
drying temperatures on starch properties and pasta quality. Food
Research International, 35, pp 421-427.
Hou H., Singh R.K., Muriana P.M., Stadelman W.J. (1996).
Pasteurizationofintactshelleggs.Food Microbilogy, 13, pp 93-101.
Hwang C.H., Heldman D.R., Chao R.R., Taylor T.A. (1999).
Changes in specific heat of corn starch due to gelatinization. J. of
Food Science, 64 n. 1, pp 141-144.
Thanks to the analysis of the cooking
quality and starch properties, tests
show that the final quality of products
dried using the VHT (Very High
Temperature) method is better than
that where HT (High Temperature) is
used. In particular, the structural
changes of the starch granules in the
drying phase influence the cooking
properties, reducing the levels of
starch loss (Guler, S. et al., 2000).
Lipids and proteins present on the
surface of the starch granules do not
influence their interaction with the
gluten which is basically tied to
phenomena of physical inclusion of
the starchy granules by the gluten
reticulation (Delcour, J.A. et al., 2000).
Gluten-free dough: the replacement of
starch in potato spaghetti by
phosphorylated tapioca starch
improved the quality of these prod-
ucts. The resulting spaghetti are trans-
parent, less fragile and, following
cooking, demonstrate moderate elas-
ticity, less stickiness and cooking loss,
as well as less swelling (Muhammad,
K. et al., 1999).
The purpose behind this study was to
improve access to bibliographical data
that is contained in the literature but is
not easy to find and, above all, is not
always easy to understand. Through
the use of non-sector-specific libraries
and the most up-to-date data banks,
we were able to gather those aspects
we believe to be the most original and,
at the same time, of greatest applica-
bility to the “world” of pasta. We have
also attempted to make this informa-
tion directly available to manufactur-
ers who normally do not make use of
such highly-specialized studies. We
hope this initial step will generate
further research into new topics, as
well as more in-depth study of those
already covered, including as a result
of suggestions offered by sector
manufacturers themselves.
38
L1N16P079 www.professionalpasta.it profpast@tin.it

6. 39
L1N16P079 www.professionalpasta.it profpast@tin.it
Icard C., Feillet P. (1997). Effets des phénoménes
d’oxydoreductions au cours de la fabrication des pâtes
alimentaires. Ind. Alim. Agr., gen.-feb., pp 4-19.
Johansson L., Virkki L., Maunu S., Lehto M.,
Ekholm P., Varo P. (2000). Structural characterization
of water soluble -glucan of oat bran. Carbohydrate
Polymers, 42, pp 143-148.
Kalchayanand N., Sikes A., Dunne C.P., Ray B.
(1998). Factors influencing death and injury of
foodborne pathogens by hydrostatic pres-
sure-pasteurization. Food Microbiology, 15, pp
207-214.
Kusunose C., Noguchi S., Yamagishi T., Seguchi
M. (2002). Binding of prime starch to tailings fraction
by proteins in stored wheat flour. Food Hydrocolloids,
16, pp 73-77.
Leopardi E., Ciappellano S., Crovetti R., Bermano
G., Testolin G. (1994). Valutazioni nutrizionali in
alimenti, pronti al consumo, conservati in atmosfera
modificata. La Rivista di Scienza dell’Alimentazione,
anno 23 n.3, pp 339-347.
Lopez C.C., Vannini L., Lanciotti R., Guerzoni E.
(1998). Microbiological quality of filled pasta in rela-
tions to the nature of heat treatment. J. of Food Protec-
tion, 61 n.8, pp 994-999.
Ma L., Paul D.L., Pothecary N., Railton C., Bows J.,
Barratt L., Mullin J., Simons D. (1995). Experimental
validation of a combined electromagnetic and thermal
FDTD model of a microwave heating process. IEEE
Transactions on microwave theory and thecniques,
43 n.11, pp 2565-2572.
Marathe S.A., Machaiah J.P., Rao B.Y.K., Pednekar
M.D., Rao V.S. (2002). Extension of shelf-life of whole-
wheat flour by gamma radiation. Int. J. of Food
Science and Technology, 37, pp 163-168.
Meyer R.S., Cooper K.L., Knorr D., Lelieveld H.L.M.
(2000). High pressure sterilization of foods. Food
Technology, 54 n. 11, pp 57-72.
Muhammad K., Kusnandar F., Hashim D.M.,
Rahman R.A. (1999). Application of native and
phosphorylate tapioca starches in potato starch
noodle. Int. J. of Food Science and Techn., 34, pp
275-280.
Oliveira M.E.C., Franca A.S. (2002). Microwave
heating of foodstuffs. J. of Food Engeenering, 53, pp
347-359.
Osepchuk J.M. (2002). Microwave power applica-
tions. IEEE Transactions on microwave theory and
thecniques, 50 n.3, pp 975-985.
Perovic B. (2000). Role of starches in pasta cooking.
Tecnica molitoria, 7, pp 726-731.
Perry P.A., Donald A. M. (2000). The effects of low
temperatures on starch granule structure. Polymer, 41,
pp 6361-6373.
Roberts D.D., Pollien P. (1997). Analysis of aroma
release during microwave heating. J. Agric. Food
Chem., 45, pp 4388-4392.
Rückold S., Grobecker K.H., Isengard H.D.
(2001). The effects of drying on biological matrices
and the consequences for reference materials. Food
Control, 12, pp 401-407.
Schebor C., Chirife J. (2000). A survey of water
activity and pH values in fresh pasta packed under
modified atmosphere manufactured in Argentina and
Uruguay. J. of Food Protection, 63 n. 7, pp 965-969.
Simpson M.V., Smith J.P., Simpson B.K.,
Ramaswamy H., Dodds K.L. (1994). Storage studies
on a sous vide spaghetti and meat sauce product.
Food microbiology, 11, pp 5-14.
Somma A., Pugliano G., Laezza P., Chianese L.,
Di Luccia A., D’Egidio M.G., Cecchini C. (1999).
Caratterizzazione di nuovi alimenti per formulazioni
dietetiche. Tecnica molitoria, 5, pp 557-565.
Sriburi P., Hill S.E. (2000). Extrusion of cassava
starch with either variations in ascorbic acid concen-
tration or pH. Int. J. of Food Science and Tehnology,
35, pp 141-154.
Sumnu G. (2001). A review on microwave baking
of foods. Int. J. of Food Science and Techn., 36, pp
117-127.
Szymonska J., Krok F., Tomasik P. (2000).
Deep-freezing of potato starch. Int. J. of Biological
Macromolecules, 27, pp 307-314.
Thed S.T., Phillips R.D. (1995). Changes of dietary
fiber and starch composition of processed potato
products during domestic cooking. Food Chemistry,
52, pp 301-304.
Thorvaldsson K., Stading M., Nilsson K., Kidman
S., Langton M. (1999). Rheology and structure of
heat-treated pasta dough: influence of water content
and heating rate. Lebnsm. - Wiss. U. Technol., 32, pp
154-161.
van deer Veen B.A., Uitdehaag J.C.M., Dijkstra
B.W., Dijkhuizen L. (2000). Engineering of
cyclodextrin clycosyltransferase reaction and product
specificity. BBA- Biochimica et Biophysica Acta,
1543, pp 336-360.
Vartzeli-Nikaki P., Daoukaki D., Konsta A.A.,
Pissis P. (1999). Physicochemical and dielectric study
of the Hydration mechanism in polysaccharides. 10th
Int. Symposium on Electrets.
Pasqualetto K. (1999). Pastorizzazione di pasta
fresca ripiena. Valutazione dell’effetto del
trattamento termico impostato sui microrganismi
presenti e inoculati. Tecnica molitoria, 6, pp
643-650
Zardetto S., Di Fresco S. (2000). Pasta fresca
farcita: conservazione e sviluppo di Salmonella
enteritidis. Tecnica molitoria, 6, pp 609-621.
Zardetto S., Di Fresco S., Pasqualetto K. (1999).
Pastorizzazione di pasta fresca ripiena. Valutazione
dell’effetto del trattamento termico impostato sui
microrganismi presenti e inoculati. Tecnica molitoria,
6, pp 643-650.