This document studies laterite stone and its use as a building material. Laterite is a ferruginous rock found in tropical regions and has high iron and aluminum oxide content. It has properties that make it suitable for construction, such as being soft when quarried but hardening when exposed to air. The document examines the chemical composition and physical properties of laterite. It also describes how laterite is quarried and provides examples of structures built with laterite blocks in Goa, India. The study concludes that laterite can be considered an economic and sustainable building material that reduces costs compared to other materials like concrete.
Role of Additives in Mortars: Historic PrecedentsIJERA Editor
The use of lime in building construction began at least 10,000 years ago, where there are numerous evidence of its earlier uses. This research is an attempt to provide a review of the history of lime as a building material in based on available literature resources. The origin significance and sustainability of lime mortars and their use in architectural conservation is discussed. Large scale use of additives in historic buildings in India and abroad is highlighted in order to put forth their physio-chemical and aesthetical properties. Use of sustainable additives in mortar is stressed. The analysis presented is supposed to help architectural conservation experts in their efforts to safeguard the intrinsic qualities Indian cultural heritage for posterity.
This module deals with the classification of the engineering materials and their processing techniques. The engineering materials can broadly be classified as:a) Ferrous Metals ,b) Non-ferrous Metals (aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium) ,c) Plastics (thermoplastics, thermosets) ,d) Ceramics and Diamond,e) Composite Materials & f) Nano-materials.
Role of Additives in Mortars: Historic PrecedentsIJERA Editor
The use of lime in building construction began at least 10,000 years ago, where there are numerous evidence of its earlier uses. This research is an attempt to provide a review of the history of lime as a building material in based on available literature resources. The origin significance and sustainability of lime mortars and their use in architectural conservation is discussed. Large scale use of additives in historic buildings in India and abroad is highlighted in order to put forth their physio-chemical and aesthetical properties. Use of sustainable additives in mortar is stressed. The analysis presented is supposed to help architectural conservation experts in their efforts to safeguard the intrinsic qualities Indian cultural heritage for posterity.
This module deals with the classification of the engineering materials and their processing techniques. The engineering materials can broadly be classified as:a) Ferrous Metals ,b) Non-ferrous Metals (aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium) ,c) Plastics (thermoplastics, thermosets) ,d) Ceramics and Diamond,e) Composite Materials & f) Nano-materials.
An Experimental Investigation on Effect of Fly Ash on Egg Shell Concreteijtsrd
Egg shell which is made of calcium is thrown away as a waste. When the calcium carbonate is heated a binding material called Calcium Oxide (Lime) is obtained. As lime is the major compound of Portland cement, eggshell powder can be used as partial replacement of fine aggregate.Fly Ash is one of the residues generated in the combustion of coal. Fly ash includes substantial amounts if Silicon dioxide (SiO2) and Calcium Oxide (CaO). 75 million tons of fly ash which are rich in Silica is disposed to landfill as a waste annually in India.This project aims at examining the feasibility of eggshell powder as a partial replacement of fine aggregate and also to observe the affect of fly ash on the proposed concrete. In the present study, concrete cubes of grade M30 and M40 were prepared in the laboratory by replacing the fine aggregate with fly ash and egg shell powder at combined proportions of 0%, 7%, 14%, 21%, 28%, 35% & 42% by weight. Tests are conducted at 7 days and 28 days on concrete cubes, cylinders and flexural beams to study compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength/ finally the results are compared with the normal conventional concrete and the effect of fly ash on it is studied G Anisha | A Pavani"An Experimental Investigation on Effect of Fly Ash on Egg Shell Concrete" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-4 , June 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd2206.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/structural-engineering/2206/an-experimental-investigation-on-effect-of-fly-ash-on-egg-shell-concrete/g-anisha
Residual mineral deposits; Laterites; Laterite Profile; Laterisation system; Laterite/Bauxite Conditions; Laterite-type Bauxite, Constitution of Bauxite, Types of deposits; Origin and Mode of formation; Clay (Kaolinite) Deposits; Nickel Laterite Deposits; Mineralogy and Types of lateritic nickel ore deposits; World Nickel Laterite Deposits; Processing of Ni Laterites; Example: Ni-laterites, Ni in soils in east Albania
FLEXURAL BEHAVIOUR OF COPPER SLAG AND FLY ASH CONCRETE‐ A CASE STUDYijiert bestjournal
The present study encourages the use of waste materials copper slag (CS) and fly ash (FA) as
supplementary cement replacement materials in concrete. The combined effect of copper slag
and fly ash as a partial replacement of cement on flexural strength of concrete has been
investigated. Fifteen mixes were prepared at different replacement levels of copper slag (0 to
20% @ increment of 5%) and fly ash (0 to 10% @ increment of 5%) with cement. Three prisms
(150 mm X 150 mm X 700 mm) were casted and tested after 7 and 28-days of curing to
determine the flexural strength (modulus of rupture) for each mix. It was observed that the
flexural strength of concrete decreases as copper slag content increases for all curing ages. The
reduction in flexural strength was minor (4.30% to 7.60%) up to 10% of copper slag but beyond
10% of copper slag, there was significant reduction (24.70% to 34.21%) in flexural strength. The
addition of 5% and 10% fly ash with copper slag slightly reduced the flexural strength. It is
recommended that 10% of copper slag can be used as combined with 10% of fly ash as
maximum replacement of cement. The average flexural strength was within the permissible
values in accordance with the design specifications.
Copper Architecture and Chemical Principles for High School Studentsrekharajaseran
This presentation is aimed at providing to high school students, an introduction to green staining of copper on masonry structures observed in copper architecture. This is purely an educational activity, mainly prepared by two AP Chemistry Students (Yang Hui and Ashley Steele) from Luella High School, Locust Grove, Georgia. They intend to share this compilation for other students to benefit from, and explore the wonderful world of copper architecture.
Experiment and Analysis on the Impact of Flexural Strength on Beam with Parti...ijtsrd
In this examination the correlation silica fume, and copper slag concrete quality utilizing destructive test equipment have been completed. In this investigation three sorts of squanders materials silica fume and copper slag and ordinary aggregate were utilized for preparing beam specimens. There are M30 grade of blended extent are used. Squander materials are used in concrete with the substitution bond of 10 , 20 and 30 . These beams are tried on 28 days. The flexural quality are determined with the help of destructive test equipments. Racit Rawat | Prabhat Kumar Tiwari "Experiment & Analysis on the Impact of Flexural Strength on Beam with Partial Replacement of Cement by Silica Fume & Copper Slag" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-1 , December 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47962.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/47962/experiment-and-analysis-on-the-impact-of-flexural-strength-on-beam-with-partial-replacement-of-cement-by-silica-fume-and-copper-slag/racit-rawat
Corrosion is a mechanism that degrades materials and causes structural failures in infrastructures, which can lead to severe effects on the environment and have direct impact on the population health. In addition, corrosion is extremely complex in the underground environment due to the variability of the local conditions. The delineation and assessment of possible areas of corrosion along Obama-Kolo Creek, in the Niger Delta region was carried out using Earth resistivity measurement. The aim of this study is to evaluate the influence of soil resistivity upon metals buried underground. In this investigation, an Abem SAS 300B meter was used and 20 sounding points were carried out using the Schlumberger array along the pipeline route. A total spread (AB) of 45m was adopted with the assumption that the depth of penetration is th of the total current electrode spread (AB). The results obtained showed that subsoil resistivity values for depths of 2 – 12m required for the underground pipe laying with resistivities in the range of 8 Ohm-m to 78 Ohm-m along Obama – Kolo Creek with a mean of 43 Ohm-m. The low resistivity encountered throughout the study has been attributed to the influence of saline water intrusion in the area. The average thickness of this area is 7m. Basically, most of the geoelectric graphs showed three layers, H-type curves. Generally, the subsurface soil is made up of subsoil lithology of mainly clayey/sandy clay material with different degree of saturation. This is an indication that any underground metallic material will be exposed to high corrosivity environment, hence appropriate cathodic protection will be required.
Lateritic soil is one of the main soil types in the tropical countries like India for
basic construction works. Since lateritic soils are the main underlying soil structure
in coastal Karnataka, its detailed study of mineralogical properties is of utmost
importance. The study area chosen is Udupi district and samples were procured from
coastal plains and hinterland regions. The samples taken from each places (three
layers-top, middle and bottom at around 2.5-3 m depth) were collected in zip locked
polythene bags and were oven dried at 1050 Celsius for 24 hours and then passed
through 75 μm IS sieve size. For clear images of the soil structure and for
identification of elements, samples were coated with gold sputtering. These samples
were tested by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-Ray
Spectroscopy (EDAX/EDS) and analyzed. SEM results show various minerals present
in the samples. EDAX results show the percentage of each element (like C, O, Si, K,
Cu, Ti, Mg etc) present in the sample. Therefore it can be concluded that laterites
change their composition from iron to aluminium resulting in bauxite ore as one
moves towards north in the coastal belt of Karnataka.
Concentration, Analysis and Characterization of Smectite Selected From Volca...Scientific Review SR
Natural clays occur as mixtures of many clay minerals and remains of the rocks that under went
diagenesis to yield the clays. As weathering of clay soils never ceases it may not be possible to mine single clay
minerals. The purity of the mineral may increased through hydrocycloning and sedimentation as different clay
minerals have different densities, wetting behavior and solubility in water. In this study, information has been
accumulated on clays mined from Budadiri, Chelel, Mutufu and Sirron in eastern Uganda which were
sedimented to upgrade the content of smectites. The dried raw clays and fractions that settled from
sedimentation mixtures after six days were subjected to chemical and differential thermal analyses in addition
to Infra red and X-ray diffraction studies. The data acquired from the various experiments revealed presence of
Fe-montmorillonite, illite, kaolinite, K-feldspars, plagioclase and quartz in raw clays. Although smectites and
kaolinites may appear similar in color, the alkalinity of aqueous slurries of clay sediments from Budadiri,
Chelel and Mutufu showed they were smectites containing nontronite. The clays and clay fractions were made
of 40-50% smectite, 20-30% K-feldspars and plagioclase showing they formed from alkaline intrusive
granitoids in basic medium. The presence of iron, aluminium, and silicon in approximate percentages of 11, 18
and 60% respectively indicated that sedimentation yielded nontronite and montmorillonite fractions. The IR
spectrum absorption peaks at 3600, 3454, 526 and 466cm-1 among others were due to Al-Al-OH, Mg-OH-Al,
Si-O-Al and Si-O-Si bond deformations respectively indicated presence of smectites in the clay fractions
obtained. DTA showed peaks at temperatures of 100, 250 and 650oC due to presence of smectites.
This ppt include the details about the Basic Building Materials i.e. Bricks, Cement, Steel, Stone, Concrete. Sand.
advantages of steel, cement, characteristics of cement, concrete, concrete. sand, difference between stone and brick, different type of stones, different types of bricks, different types of cement, different types of concrete pcc rcc precast prestr, different types of steel, manufacturing of bricks, manufacturing of stone, properties of cement, properties of steel, steel, stone, this ppt include the details about the basic build, use of bricks, uses of stones
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
An Experimental Investigation on Effect of Fly Ash on Egg Shell Concreteijtsrd
Egg shell which is made of calcium is thrown away as a waste. When the calcium carbonate is heated a binding material called Calcium Oxide (Lime) is obtained. As lime is the major compound of Portland cement, eggshell powder can be used as partial replacement of fine aggregate.Fly Ash is one of the residues generated in the combustion of coal. Fly ash includes substantial amounts if Silicon dioxide (SiO2) and Calcium Oxide (CaO). 75 million tons of fly ash which are rich in Silica is disposed to landfill as a waste annually in India.This project aims at examining the feasibility of eggshell powder as a partial replacement of fine aggregate and also to observe the affect of fly ash on the proposed concrete. In the present study, concrete cubes of grade M30 and M40 were prepared in the laboratory by replacing the fine aggregate with fly ash and egg shell powder at combined proportions of 0%, 7%, 14%, 21%, 28%, 35% & 42% by weight. Tests are conducted at 7 days and 28 days on concrete cubes, cylinders and flexural beams to study compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength/ finally the results are compared with the normal conventional concrete and the effect of fly ash on it is studied G Anisha | A Pavani"An Experimental Investigation on Effect of Fly Ash on Egg Shell Concrete" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-4 , June 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd2206.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/structural-engineering/2206/an-experimental-investigation-on-effect-of-fly-ash-on-egg-shell-concrete/g-anisha
Residual mineral deposits; Laterites; Laterite Profile; Laterisation system; Laterite/Bauxite Conditions; Laterite-type Bauxite, Constitution of Bauxite, Types of deposits; Origin and Mode of formation; Clay (Kaolinite) Deposits; Nickel Laterite Deposits; Mineralogy and Types of lateritic nickel ore deposits; World Nickel Laterite Deposits; Processing of Ni Laterites; Example: Ni-laterites, Ni in soils in east Albania
FLEXURAL BEHAVIOUR OF COPPER SLAG AND FLY ASH CONCRETE‐ A CASE STUDYijiert bestjournal
The present study encourages the use of waste materials copper slag (CS) and fly ash (FA) as
supplementary cement replacement materials in concrete. The combined effect of copper slag
and fly ash as a partial replacement of cement on flexural strength of concrete has been
investigated. Fifteen mixes were prepared at different replacement levels of copper slag (0 to
20% @ increment of 5%) and fly ash (0 to 10% @ increment of 5%) with cement. Three prisms
(150 mm X 150 mm X 700 mm) were casted and tested after 7 and 28-days of curing to
determine the flexural strength (modulus of rupture) for each mix. It was observed that the
flexural strength of concrete decreases as copper slag content increases for all curing ages. The
reduction in flexural strength was minor (4.30% to 7.60%) up to 10% of copper slag but beyond
10% of copper slag, there was significant reduction (24.70% to 34.21%) in flexural strength. The
addition of 5% and 10% fly ash with copper slag slightly reduced the flexural strength. It is
recommended that 10% of copper slag can be used as combined with 10% of fly ash as
maximum replacement of cement. The average flexural strength was within the permissible
values in accordance with the design specifications.
Copper Architecture and Chemical Principles for High School Studentsrekharajaseran
This presentation is aimed at providing to high school students, an introduction to green staining of copper on masonry structures observed in copper architecture. This is purely an educational activity, mainly prepared by two AP Chemistry Students (Yang Hui and Ashley Steele) from Luella High School, Locust Grove, Georgia. They intend to share this compilation for other students to benefit from, and explore the wonderful world of copper architecture.
Experiment and Analysis on the Impact of Flexural Strength on Beam with Parti...ijtsrd
In this examination the correlation silica fume, and copper slag concrete quality utilizing destructive test equipment have been completed. In this investigation three sorts of squanders materials silica fume and copper slag and ordinary aggregate were utilized for preparing beam specimens. There are M30 grade of blended extent are used. Squander materials are used in concrete with the substitution bond of 10 , 20 and 30 . These beams are tried on 28 days. The flexural quality are determined with the help of destructive test equipments. Racit Rawat | Prabhat Kumar Tiwari "Experiment & Analysis on the Impact of Flexural Strength on Beam with Partial Replacement of Cement by Silica Fume & Copper Slag" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-1 , December 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47962.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/47962/experiment-and-analysis-on-the-impact-of-flexural-strength-on-beam-with-partial-replacement-of-cement-by-silica-fume-and-copper-slag/racit-rawat
Corrosion is a mechanism that degrades materials and causes structural failures in infrastructures, which can lead to severe effects on the environment and have direct impact on the population health. In addition, corrosion is extremely complex in the underground environment due to the variability of the local conditions. The delineation and assessment of possible areas of corrosion along Obama-Kolo Creek, in the Niger Delta region was carried out using Earth resistivity measurement. The aim of this study is to evaluate the influence of soil resistivity upon metals buried underground. In this investigation, an Abem SAS 300B meter was used and 20 sounding points were carried out using the Schlumberger array along the pipeline route. A total spread (AB) of 45m was adopted with the assumption that the depth of penetration is th of the total current electrode spread (AB). The results obtained showed that subsoil resistivity values for depths of 2 – 12m required for the underground pipe laying with resistivities in the range of 8 Ohm-m to 78 Ohm-m along Obama – Kolo Creek with a mean of 43 Ohm-m. The low resistivity encountered throughout the study has been attributed to the influence of saline water intrusion in the area. The average thickness of this area is 7m. Basically, most of the geoelectric graphs showed three layers, H-type curves. Generally, the subsurface soil is made up of subsoil lithology of mainly clayey/sandy clay material with different degree of saturation. This is an indication that any underground metallic material will be exposed to high corrosivity environment, hence appropriate cathodic protection will be required.
Lateritic soil is one of the main soil types in the tropical countries like India for
basic construction works. Since lateritic soils are the main underlying soil structure
in coastal Karnataka, its detailed study of mineralogical properties is of utmost
importance. The study area chosen is Udupi district and samples were procured from
coastal plains and hinterland regions. The samples taken from each places (three
layers-top, middle and bottom at around 2.5-3 m depth) were collected in zip locked
polythene bags and were oven dried at 1050 Celsius for 24 hours and then passed
through 75 μm IS sieve size. For clear images of the soil structure and for
identification of elements, samples were coated with gold sputtering. These samples
were tested by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-Ray
Spectroscopy (EDAX/EDS) and analyzed. SEM results show various minerals present
in the samples. EDAX results show the percentage of each element (like C, O, Si, K,
Cu, Ti, Mg etc) present in the sample. Therefore it can be concluded that laterites
change their composition from iron to aluminium resulting in bauxite ore as one
moves towards north in the coastal belt of Karnataka.
Concentration, Analysis and Characterization of Smectite Selected From Volca...Scientific Review SR
Natural clays occur as mixtures of many clay minerals and remains of the rocks that under went
diagenesis to yield the clays. As weathering of clay soils never ceases it may not be possible to mine single clay
minerals. The purity of the mineral may increased through hydrocycloning and sedimentation as different clay
minerals have different densities, wetting behavior and solubility in water. In this study, information has been
accumulated on clays mined from Budadiri, Chelel, Mutufu and Sirron in eastern Uganda which were
sedimented to upgrade the content of smectites. The dried raw clays and fractions that settled from
sedimentation mixtures after six days were subjected to chemical and differential thermal analyses in addition
to Infra red and X-ray diffraction studies. The data acquired from the various experiments revealed presence of
Fe-montmorillonite, illite, kaolinite, K-feldspars, plagioclase and quartz in raw clays. Although smectites and
kaolinites may appear similar in color, the alkalinity of aqueous slurries of clay sediments from Budadiri,
Chelel and Mutufu showed they were smectites containing nontronite. The clays and clay fractions were made
of 40-50% smectite, 20-30% K-feldspars and plagioclase showing they formed from alkaline intrusive
granitoids in basic medium. The presence of iron, aluminium, and silicon in approximate percentages of 11, 18
and 60% respectively indicated that sedimentation yielded nontronite and montmorillonite fractions. The IR
spectrum absorption peaks at 3600, 3454, 526 and 466cm-1 among others were due to Al-Al-OH, Mg-OH-Al,
Si-O-Al and Si-O-Si bond deformations respectively indicated presence of smectites in the clay fractions
obtained. DTA showed peaks at temperatures of 100, 250 and 650oC due to presence of smectites.
This ppt include the details about the Basic Building Materials i.e. Bricks, Cement, Steel, Stone, Concrete. Sand.
advantages of steel, cement, characteristics of cement, concrete, concrete. sand, difference between stone and brick, different type of stones, different types of bricks, different types of cement, different types of concrete pcc rcc precast prestr, different types of steel, manufacturing of bricks, manufacturing of stone, properties of cement, properties of steel, steel, stone, this ppt include the details about the basic build, use of bricks, uses of stones
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
1. International Journal of Engineering Research ISSN:2319-6890 (online),2347-5013(print)
Volume No.7, Issue Special 3, pp : 223-226 11-12 Jan. 2018
DOI : 10.5058/2319-6890.2018.00063.6 NCETA@2018 Page 223
Study of Laterite Stone as Building Material
Nisha Maklurˡ, Dr. Parag Narkhede2
¹Student of M. Arch, Environmental Architecture, DYPSOA, Lohegaon Pune
²Adjunct Professor M. Arch, Environmental Architecture, DYPSOA, Lohegaon Pune
Email: nisha.maklur@gmail.com, parag114@gmail.com
Abstract: The paper deals with understanding of laterite as a
building material and study of their various properties.
Observations of the structures built in laterite blocks would
be the part of the study. The research aimed at providing
appropriate use of laterite as a building material. The rising
construction cost and drive towards locally available
material have fuelled a demand for this product in recent
years. The basic properties of laterite should be studied. This
will thus help in understanding it better as a building
material. The method used for research was survey and
observation analysis. Literature reviews, interviews and case
study based inferences and findings showed that Laterite is
found in tropical regions and the structures built in laterite
are mostly of load bearing. The study also showed that
laterite can be considered as a very good construction
material for building various structure like residential
buildings, bridges etc.
Keywords:
Laterite stone, chemical properties of laterite,
characteristics of laterite, types of laterite, laterite sizes,
uses of laterites in construction.
1. Introduction
Laterite is a residual ferruginous rock, commonly found in
tropical regions and has close genetic association with
bauxite. The term ‘laterite’ was originally used for highly
ferruginous deposits first observed in Malabar Region of
coastal Kerala and Dakshin Kannad and other parts of
Karnataka. It is a highly weathered material, rich in secondary
oxides of iron, aluminium or both. It is either hard or capable
of hardening on exposure to moisture and drying. Aluminous
laterites and ferruginous laterite are quite common. Laterite is
found in various parts of India, where it is extensively used as
building material in regions of Kerela, Goa, Karnataka and
Andra Pradesh. Lateritic soils are formed in the tropics
through weathering processes that favour the
formation of iron, aluminium, manganese and titanium oxides.
These processes break down silicate minerals into clay
minerals such as kaolinite and elite. Iron and aluminium
oxides are prominent in lateritic soils, and with the seasonal
fluctuation of the water table, these oxides result in the
reddish-brown colour that is seen in lateritic soils.
These soils have served for a long time as major and sub-base
materials for the construction of most highways and walls of
residential houses in tropical and sub-tropical countries of the
world. Laterite is a building material which can be used in
construction from flooring to roof construction. The rising
construction cost and drive towards locally available material
have fuelled a demand for this product in recent years. The
basic properties of laterite should be studied. This will thus
help in understanding it better as building material. Laterite
is found in the region of mean annual temperature of 23 to 26-
degree C and rainfall 1200 to 4000 mm and with the number
of rainy months 8 to 10. Laterite can occur at every altitude
from sea level to about 2500 m. A considerable area of the
former cultivated land is covered by laterite.
2. Classification
Laterites are formed from the leaching of parent sedimentary
rocks. They belong to Non-transported sedimentary rock
category. They are formed in in-situ conditions. The
mechanism of leaching involves acid dissolving the host
mineral lattice, followed by hydrolysis and precipitation of
insoluble oxides and sulphates of iron, aluminium and silica
under the high temperature conditions of a humid subtropical
monsoon climate. The term laterite first appeared in
scientific literature a little over hundred and fifty years ago.
The word ‘laterite’ was suggested by Buchanan (1807) to
denote a building material used in mountain regions of
Malabar (India). He named it laterite from the Latin word
later, which means a brick; this rock can easily be cut into
brick shaped blocks for building (Norton, 2000). Buchanan
MAP 1. Map showing locations where laterite
stones are found.
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observed a type of weathered material used for building,
which was an indurated clay with full of cavities and pores,
containing a large quantity of iron in the form of red and
yellow ochre. Its appearance is that of a ferruginous deposit of
vesicular structure, apparently unstratified and occurring not
far below the surface. When fresh it can readily be cut into
regular blocks with a cutting tool. On exposure to the air it
rapidly hardens and becomes highly resistant to weathering.
Because of these properties it is frequently used as a building
material comparable to bricks.
Chart 1 showing classification of laterite
3. Characteristics of laterite
3.1 Indurated occurrence
Newbold (1844) gives the following description (cited from
Prescott and Pendletom,1952):’The laterite of Beder,
generally speaking, is a purplish or brick-red, porous rock,
passing into brown perforated by numerous sinuous and
tortuous tubular cavities either empty, filled, or partially filled
with a greyish-white clay passing into an ochreous, reddish
and yellow-brown dust. The sides of the cavities are usually
ferruginous and often of deep brown or chocolate colour. The
hardest varieties of the rock are the darkest coloured, and most
ferruginous. The softness of this rock is such that it may be
cut with spade; hardening by exposure to the sun and air.
3.2 Structure
Laterites are greatly in structure, but can be reduced to the
following three structural patterns: (a) the indurated elements
form a continuous, coherent skeleton; (b) the indurated
elements are free concretions or nodules in an earthy matrix;
(c) the indurated elements cement pre-existing materials.
3.3 Colour
Laterites vary in colour, but are usually bright. The shades
most frequently encountered are pink, ochre, red and brown,
but some occurrence mottled and streaked with violet, and
others exhibit green marbling. A single sample may exhibit a
whole range of colours merging more or less perceptibly into
one another in variety of patterns and forms. Laterites owe
their colours to iron oxides in various states of hydration and
sometimes also to manganese. Iron compound yields a grey-
black colour and manganese compound a velvety black in a
reducing medium, while in an oxidizing medium iron yields
ochre, red or black, and manganese violet.
Fig.1 Showing different colours in laterite
3.4 Types of laterite
Laterite can be differentiated into two types: Aluminous
Laterites and Ferruginous Laterites. The laterite in which the
content of Alumina is more is known as Aluminous laterites
and in which the content of iron is more is known as
Ferruginous laterites. Ferruginous laterites are higher in
density, are more dark than aluminous and can be considered
as a good building material.
Table 1 showing characteristics of laterite stone
4. Chemical properties
Mature laterites are made up primarily of iron, aluminium,
silica, titanium and water. Generally, laterites are poor in
alkali and alkaline earth metals. The average composition of
typical laterites is as follows:
H2O-with large quantities of alumina, the combined water in
laterite varies from 20-30%
Al2O3-In general, Al2O3 forms the most abundant constituent
in laterite varying from 50 60 %. With an enrichment of iron
or Quartz, the alumina content is lowered.
3. International Journal of Engineering Research ISSN:2319-6890 (online),2347-5013(print)
Volume No.7, Issue Special 3, pp : 223-226 11-12 Jan. 2018
DOI : 10.5058/2319-6890.2018.00063.6 NCETA@2018 Page 225
Fe2O3-The content of Fe2O3 may vary considerably, ranging
from 35 to 80%.
SiO2-In typical laterite the SiO2 will be very low.
TiO2-Generally the TiO2 content in laterites are high about
2%. Though, it may be completely lacking in some cases.
Table 2 showing physical properties of laterite
5. Case study
Visit to Laterite Stone Quarry in Goa
Nearly two third of Goa is covered with mantles of
laterites ranging in thickness from couple of meters to 25
meters. The laterites in Goa occur as plateau (higher level)
and as detrital (lower level) laterites throughout the length and
breadth of Goa. The stone quarry was located in Bicholim
area. These rock have special significance in Goa as they
serve both as building material and as good water bearing
formation.
5.1 Steps involved in quarrying of laterite
Laterite blocks are soft for easy quarrying and shaping, but
they become hard when exposed to atmospheric oxygen. The
ease of cutting and shaping laterite and hardening with age
due to
atmospheric exposure makes its use different and versatile in
building applications
• Removal of overburden either using simple tools in
manual operation or through the use of bulldozers in
semi- mechanized quarries. The overburden is then
stacked by the side of the quarries.
• The Laterite slab is then sized in situ using long nails and
strings.
Chart 1 showing chemical composition of laterite
In manual operation, the stone is then cut
along these markings using pickaxes and crow bars. In a semi-
mechanized mine, the mechanized plough is used to cut along
the markings.
• The waste rock is collected using spades
and carried to the side of the quarry in cane or metal baskets.
• The stone is then loaded on to trucks. The
stones are further dressed as per the mason’s requirements at
the construction site.
5.2 Tools used
Laterite is sized and then cut into blocks and used for
construction of walls and houses. These blocks are generally
in the size of 35 x 28 x 15 cms. There are two types of
operations observed: those are totally manual and those that
have limited mechanization. The former use pickaxes,
pickaxes are modified with a flat blade, spades and metal
baskets. The overburden is removed manually too. In a limited
mechanical quarry, same tools are used but they are
supplemented by motorized hand ploughs to which a wheel
cutter is attached.
5.3Laterite sizes
Laterite blocks are available in different sizes of:
390 x 190 x 190mm
490 x 190 x 190mm
590 x 190 x 190mm
Fig.2 showing different sizes of laterite stone
6. Use of Laterite as building material
6.1 Laterite interlocking blocks
Laterite stone have traditionally used after directly extraction
from the naturally occurring laterite sources, after which they
are cut into bricklike shapes for use as walling units. Recently,
there has been advancement in using laterite in the form of
interlocking bricks used to construct walls without the use of
cement mortar. Laterite stone is ground and filtered using a
sieve, which is then mixed with 5% cement mixture and a
chemical setting agent. This mixture is then machine
compressed to form high density interlocking bricks. They are
manufactured in two widths of 6 inches and 8 inches; and are
also available in varying lengths. Each interlocking brick has
grooves and locks on its sides which can be fitted with each
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Volume No.7, Issue Special 3, pp : 223-226 11-12 Jan. 2018
DOI : 10.5058/2319-6890.2018.00063.6 NCETA@2018 Page 226
other to form a block wall that does not need cement mortar
for bonding. They have lower embodied energy due to use of
natural locally available materials- stone and wood. The only
energy spent is in transportation of materials. The high
recyclability factor – especially in case of interlocking blocks
which don’t use connecting mortar is a bonus.
6.2 Structures in Goa built in laterite
• Load bearing structures are constructed using laterite
blocks.
• Many churches in Goa are built in laterite stone and
Plastered with lime mortar.
• The Vice Roy arch is built in laterite except for the
façade on the river side which is which is facetted with
greenish laterite. The historic monument built by Portuguese
in Goa.
• The Patto bridge is fine piece of architecture with
roman style arches completely built in laterite stone
• Laterite is used for making various landscape
elements.
• The brick is soft and lumpy but they create rustic
beauty.
Fig.3 Vice Roy Arch, constructed in laterite stone, Goa.
Fig.5 Landscape elements made of laterite.
7.Analysis
• The use of laterite is cost effective as compared to
concrete blocks.
• Reduces cost of plastering and painting.
• Reduces heat within the house.
• Soft when quarried hardens on exposure.
• Requires skilled workmanship.
• Porosity of laterite stones is more than bricks. Thus load
bearing structure of laterite masonry cannot be more than
double storey.
• The darker the laterite, the harder, heavier and more
resistant to moisture it.
8.Conclusion
Laterite can support the demand of building material in
sustainable way. These materials can be used to contribute to
solving the problem of affordable housing by encouraging
research on local materials and by implementing efficient
training programs on the use of earth-based construction. It is
economic, as the final cost of the construction can be reduced
with local material utilization.
Laterite stone can be considered ecological, for reduction of
nuisances and pollution related to cement and steel
production.
It also reduces energetic costs due to better thermal insulation
performances.
References
i. Lyall Addleson.: 1972, Materials for Building, Iliffe Books,
London.
ii. Alan Everett.:1970, Materials, B T Batsford Ltd, Great
Britain.
iii. N.Chenna Kesavallu.:2009,Textbook of Engineering
Geology, Macmillan Publishers, India.
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