2. Topics and Questions
The history and
growth of
psychology
The big question:
Nature vs. Nurture
Biopsychosocial
levels of analysis
Psychology’s
subfields
Avoiding three
“common sense”
thinking errors
How do I explain
dreams? Anxiety? The
abilities and funny
behavior of babies?
The Scientific Attitude:
Curiosity, Skepticism,
Humility
The Scientific Method
Description, Correlation,
and Experimentation
Frequently Asked Questions
about Psychology
Applying psychology to
learning the text: SQ3R
3. From speculation to science:
The Birth of Modern Psychology
Aristotle (4th century BCE) had ideas
about how the body and mind work.
His method: making guesses.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) added
two key elements to help make
psychology a science:
1. carefully measured observations
2. experiments
4. Push a button when a ball
dropped (based on when they
heard the ball hit a platform):
1/10th of a second.
Push a button when
consciously aware of hearing
the ball hit the platform:
2/10ths of a second.
Wilhelm Wundt’s 1879 experiment
measured the time it took for people to:
Why were the
times different?
5. Structuralism
Edward Titchener, like his teacher Wundt, used data from
introspection, reporting on sensations and other elements of
experience.
Structuralism: Using these introspective reports to build a
view of the mind’s structure
6. Functionalism: The school of thought that
Psychological processes have a function: helping us survive
as individuals, adapt as a species
The developer of
functionalism, William
James (1842-1910),
asked: How did the
human style of thinking
and behavior enable our
ancestors to live long
enough to reproduce?
James mentored another
pioneer
William
James
7. Mary Whiton Calkins
(1863-1930) became a
memory researcher and
the first female president
of the APA.
She studied with William
James but was denied a
Harvard PhD. Why?
Because of her gender.
Psychology Pioneers
Mary
Whiton
Calkins
9. Shifting definitions of “psychology”
Wilhelm
Wundt and
Edward
Titchener,
around 1900:
“The science
of mental life.”
John B.
Watson and
B.F. Skinner,
behaviorists,
1920’s: “The
scientific
study of
observable
behavior.”
Cognitive
psychologists,
1960’s,
studied
internal mental
processes,
helped by
neuroscience.
Now we combine
these definitions:
“The science of
behavior and
mental
processes.”
10. Behaviorists study and
experiment with
observable behavior.
Watson experimented
with conditioned
responses.
Skinner studied the way
consequences shape
behavior.
Like other behaviorists,
he saw little value in
introspection.
Trends in Psychological Science:
Behaviorism
John B. Watson
B. F. Skinner
11. Sigmund Freud, founder of
psychoanalysis:
He studied and helped people with a
variety of mental disorders.
More about Freud when we study
personality and therapy
Sigmund Freud
Trends in Psychology:
Freudian/Psychoanalytic Psychology
12. Humanists: Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers (1960s):
studied people who were thriving rather
than those who had psychological
problems.
developed theories and treatments to
help people to feel accepted and to reach
their full potential.
Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
Trends in Psychology:
Humanism
13. The Growth of
Psychology
Psychology’s pioneers have come
from many fields: physiology,
philosophy, medicine, and biology.
Advances in psychology also have
been made in many countries
Psychology has spread rapidly;
there are 71 member nations in
the IUPS.
The subjects studied in
psychology have
multiplied too… as we
shall see in this course.
14. The Big Issue in Psychology: N-N
To what extent are
our traits already set
in place at birth (our
“Nature”)?
And to what extent
do our traits
develop in
response to our
environment/
experience (our
“Nurture”)?
The Nature-
Nurture
Question:
15. vs.
Nature Nurture
Plato:
Ideas such
as “the
good” and
“beauty”
are inborn.
Descartes:
Some ideas
are innate.
Charles Darwin: Some
traits become part of
our nature through
natural selection: they
help us survive long
enough to pass the traits
to the next generation.
Aristotle:
All knowledge
comes through
the senses.
John Locke:
The mind is a
blank slate (blank
chalkboard or
screen) “written
on” by experience.
17. “Nurture works on what Nature endows.”
The Roles of
Nature and
Nurture:
18. Biology Plus Environment..
are part of
psychology’s three
“biopsychosocial”
levels of analysis.
The deep level,
Biology:
genes, brain,
neuro-
transmitters,
survival,
reflexes,
sensation
The outer level,
Environment:
social Influences,
culture,
education,
relationships
In the middle,
Psychology:
thoughts,
emotions,
moods, choices,
behaviors, traits,
motivations,
knowledge,
perceptions
19. The three levels as influences on
some psychological phenomenon
Example: Depression
Example: Intelligence
Example: Enjoying Soccer
Example: Shyness
20. Cognitive
perspective
Social-cultural
Behavioral
genetics
Neuroscience
Psychodynamic
Behaviorist
Evolutionary
There are many
perspectives for
describing
psychological
phenomena: From different angles, you ask different questions:
How reliable is memory? How can we improve our
thinking?
Could our behavior, skills, and attitudes be
“downloads” from our culture?
Could our behavior, skills, and attitudes be
genetically programmed instincts?
What role do our bodies and brains play in
emotions? How is pain inhibited? Can we trust our
senses?
Do inner childhood conflicts still plague me and
affect my behavior?
How are our problematic behaviors reinforced?
How do our fears become conditioned? What can
we do to change these fears and behaviors?
Why are humans prone to panic, anger, and
making irrational judgments?
22. Let’s play: “What’s my perspective?”
“Obsessive-
compulsive
disorder is a
problem in the
orbital cortex.”
“No, it’s a sign
of unresolved
childhood
issues.”
“No, OCD is
an
inherited
condition.”
“Compulsions start as habits
and are rewarded by the
anxiety relief they bring.”
“OCD comes
from our
natural instinct
to control our
environment.”
“OCD thinking
and behavior is a
reaction to our
fast-paced, out-
of-control
lifestyles.”
“No, OCD is a matter
of mental habits and
errors that can be
corrected.”
23. Psychology’s Subfields
Applied
Clinical Psychology
Counseling Psychology
Educational Psychology
Industrial-Organizational
Community Psychology
Clinical Psychology
Basic research
Biological
Developmental
Cognitive
Personality
Social
Positive Psychology
24. Psychology’s Subfields
Research Examples
Type of research
Biological
Developmental
Cognitive
Personality
Social
Positive Psychology
Study how the stages of
cognitive and emotional
development vary in autism
Explore the structural problems
in the brain that may be part of
autism
Clarify the difficulties autistic
children have with
understanding sarcasm
Decide whether traits like
neuroticism need to be
measured differently in autism
Find how autistic children can
learn social skills as procedures
if not by intuition
Explore what motivates people
and contributes to life
satisfaction
25. Applied
Clinical Psychology
Counseling Psychology
Educational Psychology
Industrial-Organizational
Community Psychology
Clinical Psychology
Psychology’s Subfields
Applied
Help someone achieve career
goals despite family conflict and
self-doubt
Use exposure therapy to
decrease phobic reactions in a
traumatized client
Evaluate aptitudes and
achievement to plan for a
student with learning problems
Figure out how a factory can
improve coordination of tasks,
roles, and personalities
Help coordinate a city’s efforts
to understand and prevent
elder abuse
Use exposure therapy to
decrease phobic reactions in a
traumatized client
26. Psychology in context with
other professions
Psychiatrists are
physicians, M.D.s or
D.O.s. They can prescribe
medication.
In addition to
psychologists,
professionals in social
work, counseling, and
marriage and family
therapy may be trained
to do psychotherapy.
27. The Need for Psychological Science:
Overview
Typical errors in hindsight, overconfidence, and
coincidence
The scientific attitude and critical thinking
The scientific method: theories and hypotheses
Gathering psychological data: description,
correlation, and experimentation/causation
Describing data: significant differences
Issues in psychology: laboratory vs. life, culture
and gender, values and ethics
28. When our natural thinking style fails:
Hindsight bias:
“I knew it all
along.”
Overconfidence
error:
“I am sure I am
correct.”
The coincidence
error, or
mistakenly
perceiving order
in random events:
“The dice must be
fixed because you
rolled three sixes
in a row.”
29. Hindsight
bias is like a
crystal ball
that we use
to predict…
the past.
I knew this would
happen…
You were accepted
into this
college/university
Classic example:
after watching a
competition (sports,
cooking), if you don’t
make a prediction
ahead of time, you
might make a
“postdiction”: “I
figured that
team/person would
win because…”
When you see most
results of
psychological
research, you might
say, “that was
obvious…”
Hindsight Bias
30. These sayings all
seem to make sense,
in hindsight, after we
read them.
Out of sight, out of mind
S/He who hesitates is lost
No [wo]man is an island
Actions speak louder than words
You’re never too old to learn
Curiosity killed the cat
Opposites attract
There’s no place like home
Absence makes the heart grow fonder
Look before you leap
Good fences make good neighbors
The pen is mightier than the sword
You can’t teach an old dog new tricks
The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence
Seek and ye shall find
Birds of a feather flock together
But then why do
these other
phrases also seem
to make sense?
31. Hindsight “Bias”
The mind builds its
current wisdom around
what we have already
been told. We are
“biased” in favor of old
information.
For example, we may
stay in a bad relationship
because it has lasted this
far and thus was “meant
to be.”
Why call it “bias”?
32. Overconfidence
Error:
Predicting performance
We overestimate our
performance, our rate of work,
our skills, and our degree of
self-control.
Overconfidence
Error:
Judging our accuracy
When stating that we
“know” something, our
level of confidence is
usually much higher than
our level of accuracy.
Overconfidence is a
problem in preparing for
tests. Familiarity is not
understanding
If you feel confident
that you know a concept,
try explaining it to
someone else.
Test for this: “how long do
you think it takes you to…”
(e.g. “just finish this one thing I’m
doing on the computer before I get
to work”)?
How fast can you unscramble
words? Guess, then try these:
ERSEGA
HEGOUN
33. Result of this
error:
reacting to
coincidence
as if it has
meaning
Perceiving order in random events:
Example: The
coin tosses
that “look
wrong” if
there are five
heads in a
row.
Danger: thinking you can make a
prediction from a random series.
If there have been five heads in a
row, you can not predict that “it’s
time for tails” on the next flip
Why this error happens: because
we have the wrong idea about
what randomness looks like.
If one poker player
at a table got pocket
aces twice in a row,
is the game rigged?
34. Making our ideas more accurate by
being scientific
What did “Amazing Randi” do
about the claim of seeing
auras? He developed a
testable prediction, which
would support the theory if it
succeeded.
Which it did not.
The aura-readers were
unable to locate the aura
around Randi’s body without
seeing Randi’s body itself, so
their claim was not
supported.
35. Scientific Attitude Part 1: Curiosity
Hypothesis:
Curiosity, if not
guided by caution,
can lead to the
death of felines
and perhaps
humans.
Definition:
always asking new
questions
“That behavior I’m noticing in that guy… is that
common to all people? Or is it more common when
under stress? Or only common for males?”
36. Scientific Attitude Part 2: Skepticism
Definition:
not accepting a ‘fact’ as true without
challenging it; seeing if ‘facts’ can
withstand attempts to disprove them
Skepticism, like curiosity, generates
questions: “Is there another
explanation for the behavior I am
seeing? Is there a problem with how I
measured it, or how I set up my
experiment? Do I need to change my
theory to fit the evidence?”
37. Scientific Attitude Part 3: Humility
Humility refers to
seeking the truth
rather than trying to
be right; a scientist
needs to be able to
accept being
wrong.
“What matters is
not my opinion or
yours, but the
truth nature
reveals in
response to our
questioning.”
David Myers
38. Critical thinking refers to a
more careful style of forming
and evaluating knowledge
than simply using intuition.
Along with the scientific method,
critical thinking will help us develop
more effective and accurate ways to
figure out what makes people do,
think, and feel the things they do.
“Think critically” with psychological science…
does this mean “criticize”?
Why do I need to
work on my thinking?
Can’t you just tell me
facts about
psychology?
• The brain is
designed for
surviving and
reproducing, but it
is not the best tool
for seeing ‘reality’
clearly.
39. Critical thinking:
analyzing
information,
arguments, and
conclusions, to
decide if they make
sense, rather than
simply accepting it.
Look for
hidden
assumptions
and decide if
you agree.
Look for
hidden bias,
politics,
values, or
personal
connections.
Put aside
your own
assumptions
and biases,
and look at
the
evidence.
See if there
was a flaw in
how the
information
was
collected.
Consider if
there are
other
possible
explanations
for the facts
or results.
40. How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions:
The Scientific Method
The scientific method is the process of
testing our ideas about the world by:
Turning our theories
into testable
predictions.
Gather information
related to our
predictions.
analyzing whether
the data fits with
our ideas.
If the data doesn’t fit our ideas, then we modify our
hypotheses, set up a study or experiment, and try
again to see if the world fits our predictions.
41. Scientific Method:
Tools and Goals
Some research findings revealed by
the scientific method:
The brain can recover from
massive early childhood
brain damage.
Sleepwalkers are not acting
out dreams.
Our brains do not have
accurate memories locked
inside like video files.
There is no “hidden and
unused 90 percent” of our
brain.
People often change their
opinions to fit their actions.
The basics:
Theory
Hypothesis
Operational
Definitions
Replication
Research goals/types:
Description
Correlation
Prediction
Causation
Experiments
42. Theory: the big picture
Example of a theory:
“All ADHD symptoms
are a reaction to
eating sugar.”
A theory, in the
language of
science, is a set of
principles, built on
observations and
other verifiable
facts, that explains
some phenomenon
and predicts its
future behavior.
43. Hypotheses: informed predictions
“Testable” means that the
hypothesis is stated in a way
that we could make
observations to find out if it
is true.
A hypothesis is
a testable
prediction
consistent with
our theory.
What would be a
prediction from the “All
ADHD is about sugar”
theory?
One hypothesis: “If a kid gets sugar, the kid will act more
distracted, impulsive, and hyper.”
To test the “All” part of the theory: “ADHD symptoms
will continue for some kids even after sugar is removed
from the diet.”
44. Danger when testing hypotheses:
theories can bias our observations
We might select only the
data, or the interpretations
of the data, that support
what we already believe.
There are safeguards
against this:
Hypotheses designed to
disconfirm
Operational definitions
Guide for making useful
observations:
How can we measure
“ADHD symptoms” in
the previous example in
observable terms?
Impulsivity = # of
times/hour calling
out without raising
hand.
Hyperactivity = # of
times/hour out of
seat
Inattention = #
minutes
continuously on task
before becoming
distracted
45. The next/final step in the
scientific method:
Replication
You could introduce a small change in the study, e.g.
trying the ADHD/sugar test on college students instead
of elementary students.
Replicating research
means trying the methods
of a study again, but with
different participants or
situations, to see if the
same results happen.
47. Scientific Method:
Tools and Goals
The basics:
Theory
Hypothesis
Operational Definitions
Replication
Research goals/types:
Description
Correlation
Prediction
Causation
Experiments
Now that we’ve covered this
We can move on to this
48. Research goal and strategy:
Description
Strategies for gathering this
information:
Case Study: observing
and gathering information
to compile an in-depth
study of one individual
Naturalistic Observation:
gathering data about
behavior; watching but
not intervening
Surveys and Interviews:
having other people
report on their own
attitudes and behavior
Descriptive
research is a
systematic,
objective
observation of
people.
The goal is to
provide a
clear, accurate
picture of
people’s
behaviors,
thoughts, and
attributes.
49. Case Study
Examining one individual in
depth
Benefit: can be a source
of ideas about human
nature in general
Example: cases of brain
damage have suggested
the function of different
parts of the brain (e.g.
Phineas Gage seen here)
Danger:
overgeneralization from
one example; “Joe got
better after tapping his
foot, so tapping must be
the key to health!”
50. Observing “natural”
behavior means just
watching (and taking
notes), and not trying
to change anything.
This method can be
used to study more
than one individual,
and to find truths
that apply to a
broader population.
Naturalistic Observation
51. The Survey
Definition: A method of
gathering information
about many people’s
thoughts or behaviors
through self-report rather
than observation.
Keys to getting useful
information:
Be careful about the
wording of questions
Only question randomly
sampled people
Wording effects
the results you get
from a survey can be
changed by your
word selection.
Example:
Q: Do you have
motivation to study
hard for this course?
Q: Do you feel a
desire to study hard
for this course?
52. What psychology
science mistake was
made here?
Hint #1: Harry Truman won.
Hint #2: The
Chicago
Tribune
interviewed
people about
whom they
would vote
for.
Hint #3:
in 1948.
Hint #4:
by
phone.
53. Random Sampling
• If you want to find out
something about men, you
can’t interview every single
man on earth.
• Sampling saves time. You
can find the ratio of colors in
this jar by making sure they
are well mixed (randomized)
and then taking a sample. population sample
Random sampling is a
technique for making
sure that every individual
in a population has an
equal chance of being in
your sample.
“Random” means
that your
selection of
participants is
driven only by
chance, not by
any characteristic.
54. Correlation
General Definition: an
observation that two
traits or attributes are
related to each other
(thus, they are “co”-
related)
Scientific definition: a
measure of how closely
two factors vary
together, or how well
you can predict a change
in one from observing a
change in the other
In a case study: The
fewer hours the boy
was allowed to sleep,
the more episodes of
aggression he
displayed.
A possible result of
many descriptive
studies:
discovering a correlation
In a naturalistic
observation:
Children in a
classroom who were
dressed in heavier
clothes were more
likely to fall asleep
than those wearing
lighter clothes.
In a survey: The
greater the number
of Facebook friends,
the less time was
spent studying.
55. Correlation Coefficient
• The correlation coefficient is a number representing how closely
and in what way two variables correlate (change together).
• The direction of the correlation can be positive (direct relationship;
both variables increase together) or negative (inverse relationship:
as one increases, the other decreases).
• The strength of the relationship, how tightly, predictably they vary
together, is measured in a number that varies from 0.00 to +/- 1.00.
Close to
+1.0
(strong negative
correlation)
(no relationship,
no correlation)
Guess the Correlation Coefficients
(strong positive
correlation)
Height vs. shoe
size
Years in school
vs. years in jail
Height vs.
intelligence
Close to
0.0
Close to
-1.0
56. If we find a correlation,
what conclusions can we
draw from it?
Let’s say we find the following
result:
there is a positive correlation
between two variables,
ice cream sales, and
rates of violent crime
How do we explain this?
57. Correlation is not Causation!
“People who floss
more regularly have
less risk of heart
disease.”
“People with bigger
feet tend to be taller.”
If this data is from a
survey, can we
conclude that
flossing might
prevent heart
disease? Or that
people with heart-
healthy habits also
floss regularly?
Does that mean
having bigger feet
causes height?
59. So how do we find out about
causation? By experimentation
Testing the theory
that ADHD = sugar:
removing sugar from
the diet of children
with ADHD to see if it
makes a difference
The depression/self-
esteem example:
trying interventions
that improve self-
esteem to see if they
cause a reduction in
depression
Experimentation:
manipulating one
factor in a
situation to
determine its
effect
60. The Control Group
• If we manipulate a variable in an experimental group
of people, and then we see an effect, how do we
know the change wouldn’t have happened anyway?
• We solve this problem by comparing this group to a
control group, a group that is the same in every way
except the one variable we are changing.
Example: two groups of children have ADHD, but
only one group stops eating refined sugar.
By using random
assignment:
randomly selecting
some study
participants to be
assigned to the
control group or the
experimental group.
How do make
sure the control
group is really
identical in every
way to the
experimental
group?
61. To clarify two similar-sounding
terms…
First you sample,
then you sort
(assign)
Random
assignment of
participants to
control or
experimental
groups is how
you control all
variables except
the one you’re
manipulating.
Random
sampling is how
you get a pool of
research
participants that
represents the
population
you’re trying to
learn about.
62. Placebo effect
Placebo effect:
experimental effects
that are caused by
expectations about
the intervention
How do we make sure that the
experimental group doesn’t
experience an effect because they
expect to experience it?
How can we make sure both
groups expect to get better, but
only one gets the real
intervention being studied?
Working with the
placebo effect:
Control groups may be
given a placebo – an
inactive substance or
other fake treatment in
place of the experimental
treatment.
The control group is
ideally “blind” to
whether they are
getting real or fake
treatment.
Many studies are
double-blind – neither
participants nor
research staff knows
which participants are
in the experimental or
control groups.
63. The variable we are able to manipulate
independently of what the other variables are
doing is called the independent variable (IV).
• If we test the ADHD/sugar hypothesis:
• Sugar = Cause = Independent Variable
• ADHD = Effect = Dependent Variable
The variable we expect to experience a change
which depends on the manipulation we’re doing is
called the dependent variable (DV).
• Did more hyper kids get to choose to be in the sugar group?
Then their preference for sugar would be a confounding
variable. (preventing this problem: random assignment).
The other variables that might have an effect on the
dependent variable are confounding variables.
Naming the variables
64. An experiment is a type of
research in which the
researcher carefully
manipulates a limited number
of factors (IVs) and measures
the impact on other factors
(DVs).
*in psychology, you
would be looking at
the effect of the
experimental change
(IV) on a behavior or
mental process (DV).
Filling in our definition of
experimentation
65. Correlation vs. causation:
the breastfeeding/intelligence question
• Studies have found that
children who were breastfed
score higher on intelligence
tests, on average, than those
who were bottle-fed.
• Can we conclude that breast
feeding CAUSES higher
intelligence?
• Not necessarily. There is at
least one confounding
variable: genes. The
intelligence test scores of the
mothers might be higher in
those who choose
breastfeeding.
• So how do we deal with this
confounding variable? Hint:
experiment.
66. Ruling out confounding variables:
experiment with random assignment
An actual study in the text: women were randomly selected to
be in a group in which breastfeeding was promoted
+6 points
67. Comparing Research Methods
Research
Method
Basic Purpose How
Conducted
What is
Manipula
ted
Weaknesses
Summary of the types of Research
Descriptive To observe and
record behavior
Perform case
studies,
surveys, or
naturalistic
observations
Nothing No control of
variables; single
cases may be
misleading
Correlational To detect naturally
occurring
relationships; to
assess how well
one variable
predicts another
Compute
statistical
association,
sometimes
among survey
responses
Nothing Does not specify
cause-effect; one
variable predicts
another but this
does not mean
one causes the
other
Experimental To explore cause-
effect
Manipulate
one or more
factors;
randomly
assign some
to control
group
The
independent
variable(s)
Sometimes not
possible for
practical or ethical
reasons; results
may not
generalize to
other contexts
68. Drawing conclusions from data:
are the results useful?
After finding a pattern
in our data that shows a
difference between one
group and another, we
can ask more questions.
Is the difference
reliable: can we use
this result to
generalize or to
predict the future
behavior of the
broader population?
Is the difference
significant: could the
result have been
caused by random/
chance variation
between the groups?
How to achieve reliability:
Nonbiased sampling: Make sure the
sample that you studied is a good
representation of the population you are
trying to learn about.
Consistency: Check that the data
(responses, observations) is not too
widely varied to show a clear pattern.
Many data points: Don’t try to generalize
from just a few cases, instances, or
responses.
When have you found statistically
significant difference (e.g. between
experimental and control groups)?
When your data is reliable AND
When the difference between the groups
is large (e.g. the data’s distribution curves
do not overlap too much).
69. Question: How can a result from an experiment,
possibly simplified and performed in a laboratory,
give us any insight into real life?
FAQ about Psychology
Laboratory vs.
Life
Diversity
Answer: By isolating variables and studying them
carefully, we can discover general principles that
might apply to all people.
Question: Do the insights from research really
apply to all people, or do the factors of culture
and gender override these “general” principles of
behavior?
Answer: Research can discover human universals
AND study how culture and gender influence
behavior. However, we must be careful not to
generalize too much from studies done with
subjects who do not represent the general
population.
70. Question: Why study animals? Is it possible to
protect the safety and dignity of animal research
subjects?
FAQ about Psychology
Ethics
Ethics
Answer: Sometimes, biologically related
creatures are less complex than humans and thus
easier to study. In some cases, harm to animals
generates important insights to help all creatures.
The value of animal research remains extremely
controversial.
Question: How do we protect the safety and
dignity of human subjects?
Answer: People in experiments may experience
discomfort; deceiving people sometimes yields
insights into human behavior. Human research
subjects are supposedly protected by guidelines
for non-harmful treatment, confidentiality,
informed consent, and debriefing (explaining the
purpose of the study).
71. Question: How do the values of psychologists
affect their work? Is it possible to perform value-
free research?
FAQ about Psychology
The impact of
Values
Answer: Researchers’ values affect their choices
of topics, their interpretations, their labels for
what they see, and the advice they generate from
their results. Value-free research remains an
impossible ideal.
72. An Application of Psychology:
Improving your test performance
Scientific studies show us that:
• The retrieval practice effect/testing effect
Testing yourself boosts retention of material.
• Put it in your own words, make connections
Actively processing material helps master it.
• Spread studying over multiple days
Spaced rehearsal, interspaced with other
subjects, is more efficient than cramming.
• If the concept looks familiar… not good enough
People tend to overestimate their mastery.
73. Applying this knowledge:
Use SQ3R to master a textbook
Survey
Scan/Skim what you are about to
read, especially chapter outlines
and section heads.
Question Ask questions that the text
might answer; write guesses.
Read
Look for the answer to your
questions, reading a
manageable amount at a time.
Rehearse
Recall what you’ve read in
your own words. Test
yourself with quizzes.
Review
Look over text and
notes and quickly
review the main ideas
of the whole chapter.
