linguistic simantics study about contradicness include ithe type and it's grade.

1. OPPOSITENESS,
DISSIMILARITY OF SENSE
AND AMBIGUITY

2. Sense Relations
{oppositeness of
Meaning}
Individual predicates
{Antonymy}
Whole sentences
{contradictoriness}

3. BINARYANTONYMS
CONVERSES
Multiple Incompatibles (systems)
GRADABLE ANTONYMY

4. According to Cruse (1995, p.204), antonymy is “exemplified by such
pairs as
long: short, fast:
slow, easy: difficult, good: bad, hot: cold.

5. BINARY ANTONYMS
Complementarity
Cruse (2004, p. 163) states, “Complementaries constitute a very basic
form of oppositeness and display inherent binarity in perhaps its purest
form.”
Another way to view this is to say that a predicate is a binary antonym of
another predicate if it entails the negative of the other predicate.
E.g.
true and false are binary antonyms.
If a sentence is true, it cannot be false. If it is false, it cannot be true.
Alternatively, if something is true, this entails that it is not false. If it is false, this entails it is
not true.

6. If a predicate describes a relationship between two things (or people) and some
other predicate describes the same relationship when the two things (or people)are
mentioned in the opposite order, then the two predicates are CONVERSES of each
other.
E.g. Parent and child are converses, because X is the parent of Y (one order)
describes the same situation (relationship) as Y is the child of X (opposite order).
John buy a car from fred
fred sell a car to john
Hasna is the parent of nurul
Nurul is the children of hasnah

7. “Incompatibles are terms which denote classes which are disjunct,
i.e. they have no members
in common. Hence, if something is a mouse, then
it is not a dog, horse, or elephant: nothing in the
world can belong simultaneously to the class of
mice and the class of dogs.” (Cruse, 2004, p. 161)
Incompatibility occurs in the case of co-hyponyms. Some sub-classes
belong to one superordinate but
their relation is incompatible.
Rose is hyponyms of flower

8. Two predicates are GRADABLE antonyms if they are at opposite ends of a continuous scale of
values (a scale which typically varies according tothe context of use).
gradable antonyms
E.g. Hot and cold are gradable antonyms.
Between hot and cold is a continuous scale of values, which may be given names such as warm,
cool, or tepid. What is called hot in one context (e.g. of oven temperatures in a recipe book)
could well be classed as cold in another context (e.g. the temperatures of stars).

9. Contradictoriness
A proposition is a contradictory of another proposition if its
impossible for them both to be true at the same time and of the
samecirumsances.

10. Statement A
Given two sentence, both identical axcept that:
•One contains a word X where the other contains a word Y,and
•X is antonym of Y (or X is compatible with Y),then the contradict
each other (i.e.contradict each other).
The relation ship between
contradictoriness and antonymy
incompability

11. A word sentences is AMBIGUOUS when it has more than
one sense, A sentence is ambiguous if it has two (or more)
paraphrases which are nt them selves paraphrases of each
other.
e.g. we saw her duck is paraphrase of we saw her lower
her head and of we saw the duck beloging to her,and these
last two sentences are not paraphrase of each other.
Therefore we saw her duck is ambiguous.

12. Ambiguouswords
(the closeness,or relatedness,of the sensesof the
ambiguouswords)
Homonymy
(different senses)
Polysemy
(closely relatedsenses)

13. A case of HOMONYMY is one of an ambiguous word whose
different senses are far apart from each other and not
obviously related to each other in any way with respect to
a native speaker’s intuition.
Mug (drinking vessel vs gullible person)
Bank (financial institution vs the side of a river or stream)
Homonymy seem very definitely to be matters of mere accident or
coincidence → There is no obvious conceptual connection between the two
meanings of either word

14. POLYSEMY
A case of POLYSEMY is one where a word has several very closely related
senses. → In otherwords, a native speaker of the language has clear
intuitions that the different senses are related toeach other in some way
E,g. guard (person who guards, sentinel vs solid
protective shield, e.g. Around machinery)
Explanation: Both contain the concept of protection against danger.

15. Homonymy & Polysemy
Polysemy is much more common in human language →
most words have related variations in sense that depend on
the particular linguistic context in which they are used.
 It is nearly impossible to draw a clear line between
homonymy and polysemy → they occupy places along a
graded continuum of meaning
homonymy polysemy vagueness

16. Homonymy
E.g.sage.
we had to resort to the
Latin botanical label
(cheating) → synonymy is
usually a relation between
words(and phrases) in the
same language.
EXAMPLE
It is not always possible to find
an exactly synonymous phrase
for a given word
→ yet it is possible to indicate
different senses of a word by
giving different environments in
which the word may be used
E.g. Grass
has two senses which are
indicated by the following
environments:
(a) Please keep off the grass.
(b) The informer grassed on
his partners-in-crime.

17. Homonymy
In many cases, a word used in one sense belongs to
one part of speech, and used in another sense, it
belongs to a different part of speech.
E.g. long
In the sense of yearn → a verb
In the sense of not short → an adjective

18. “A sentence is ambiguous if it has two (or more) paraphrases
which are not themselves paraphrases of each other.”
Examples :
The chicken is ready to eat is a paraphrase of The chicken is ready to eat
some food and of The chicken is ready to be eaten.

19. Sentence Ambiguity
Structurally
(Grammatically
Ambiguous)
Lexical Ambiguity

20. LEXICAL AMBIGUITY
Any ambiguity resulting from the ambiguity of a
word is a LEXICAL AMBIGUITY.
E.g.
Homophones : Jaime's house is near the bank
Polysemy : I forgot my magazinein the car.

21. STRUCTURALLY (orGRAMMATICALLY) AMBIGUOUS
A sentence which is ambiguous because its words relate to each
other in different ways, even though none of the individual words
are ambiguous, is STRUCTURALLY (or GRAMMATICALLY)
AMBIGUOUS.
Example : the sentence We need more intelligent leaders is structurally ambiguous
1. We need leaders that are more intelligent
2. We need more leaders that are intelligent