Usepa Case Study

Usepa Case Study
General Comments 1.While mentioned several times in the technical memorandum, the following represent important aspects that need to be
considered for any and all alternatives: Further sediment delineation of the sediment management areas (SMAs): A single sample location has been
used to delineate the entire 0.9 acre SMA. Further delineation is in order for SMAs. For any alternative including dredging confirmation sampling
of the floor and sides of excavation should be performed to assure that adequate material has been removed. (see specific comments) The key
question for any confirmation sampling is what criterion is chosen to decide that additional removal is, or is not, necessary. Clearly the final SWAC
(be it 0.5 or 1.7 milligrams per kilogram [mg/kg]) should not be used because this is an area weighted concentration. How will the... Show more content
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Page 2, Section 1.2; Page 4, Section 2 and elsewhere. In the sixth paragraph the text states "Cancer risks predicted for total PCBs and TEQs under
USEPA RME assumptions fall within the 10–6 to 10–4 range (i.e., 9 x 10–5 and 1 x 10–4, respectively)." This cancer risk evaluation is inconsistent
with United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) guidance (USEPA. 1996. PCBs: Cancer Dose
–Response Assessment and Application
to Environmental Mixtures. EPA/600/P–96/001F. September) which specifies that high risk total PCB cancer risk must be added to the PCB congener
2,3,7,8–tetrachlorodibenzo–p–dioxin toxic equivalency cancer risk. Consequently the total cancer risk is 0.9 x 10–4 + 1 x 10–4 or 2 x 10–4, which
exceeds the USEPA acceptable risk range. In addition, the second remedial action objective (RAO) on page 4 regarding cancer risks must be
addressed because total cancer risks exceed the acceptable USEPA risk range. It is possible that the documented proposed remedial action will reduce
cancer risks to acceptable levels, but this must be demonstrated, and cancer risks considered for derivation of the
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Essay on New Albany Shale
Illinois Basin Structure
The Illinois Basin lies across Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky, and it has a oval like structural depression in southeastern Illinois. The Illinois Basin is
classified as an intracratonic basin (Bois and Pelet 1982). The Illinois Basin began as a rift complex which eventually failed, the New Madrid fault is
associated with this rifting (Hasenmueller and Comer 1994). The depositional thickness of the New AlbanyShale was strongly affected by the regional
down–warping in southeastern Illinois (Lineback 1980). The Illinois basin is separated from the Michigan basin by the Kankakee arch, which is
located primarily in Indiana (Nelson 1995). To the South East lies the Cincinnati arch (Nelson 1995). In central and... Show more content on
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Genevieve Fault Zone (Hasenmueller and Comer 1994). During the Devonian while the New Albany Shale was being deposited, the Sangamon Arch
was active causing the New Albany Shale to thin out (Hasenmueller and Comer 1994). The Media Anticline was also active during the time of
deposition, this can be seen by the thinning across the structure while there is no thinning on older strata (Hasenmueller and Comer 1994). The Mount
Carmel Fault is a normal fault that trends northwest and has seismic data that indicates it reaches the basement (Hasenmueller and Comer 1994).
(Barrows and Cluff 1980)
Stratigraphy
The New Albany Shale is a body of rock in the Illinois Basin that is mostly shale that ranges from brownish black shale that is organic rich to gray or
greenish–gray organic poor shale (Linback 1980). There are thirteen main strata that comprise the New Albany shale and that includes the Blocher
Shale, the Sylamore Sandstone, The Selmier Shale, the Sweetland Creek Shale, the Grassy Creek Shale, the Morgan Trail member, the Morgan Trail
member, the Camp Run member, the Clegg Creek member, the Saverton Shale, the Louisiana Limestone, The Horton Creek Shale, and the Hannibal
Shale (Lineback 1980). These sub groups that range lithologies of calcareous shale or dolomitic (Lineback 1980).
The Blocher Shale is characterized by its calcareous and dolomitic black shales texture that grades

Essay On Sediment Fingerprinting
Abstract:
The growing awareness of the environmental significance of fine–grained sediment fluxes in fluvial systems continues to underscore the need for
reliable information on the principal sources. Traditional monitoring techniques are unable to solve the source estimation alone and had many spatial
and temporal limits, but sediment source fingerprinting method has emerged as a potentially valuable supplement to address these issues. Despite the
rapidly increasing numbers of studies reporting that the use of sediment source fingerprinting method has several key challenges and uncertainties
continue to hamper the existing methodological procedures. This review identifies existing methodological steps for sediment fingerprinting ... Show
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2016).
Quantitative information on the sources of sediment is key to developing effective erosion control measures to maximize sediment reduction. However,
such information is extremely limited due to difficulties in direct measurement of sediment source contributions from various sources within a
watershed (Zhang and Liu 2016). Generally, there are two ways in determining the source of sediment. One is to use traditional techniques such as
erosion pins or unit source plots or small watersheds to estimate sediment provenance from a source type (e.g. gully, overland erosion source). These
methods possibly meet some of these information requirements, but they have several limitations such as the representativeness of the obtained data,
their spatial and temporal resolution, associated spatial patterns over extended areas, and costs as well. Moreover, traditional monitoring and modelling
methods for soil erosion dynamics involved many parameters and long–term measurement. For example, to obtain long–term erosion data in
agroecosystems, experimental plots must be carried out over decades to integrate the inter–annual variability of climate and cropping practices (Mabit
et al. 1999).
Another way to estimate sediment source contributions is to use sediment source fingerprinting. The fingerprinting method has been used at many
spatial scales, ranging from a plot to a large river basin (Koiter et al. 2013; Laceby and Olley 2015; Walling

The Badlands And Lakota Land
When the Sioux migrated to the Great Plains area, they most certainly came across the the Badlands in their discovery. The name "Badlands" is
derived from the Lakota phrase makИџГіЕЎiДЌa, meaning Land of Bad Spirits. Today, some Lakota believe that the Badlands are a place to be
avoided because it is where bad spirits exist. This paper will discuss the geographic location, geological formation, Lakota legends, reasons the site is
visited, time or seasons to visit and Lakota stargazing associated with the site. When applicable, Lakota words will be provided.
Geographic Location and Geology
The Badlands are geographically located in Southwest South Dakota, the Southern Unit being within the Pine Ridge Reservation. The Oglala Lakota
Nation co–manages the Southern Unit of Badlands National Park.
The Badlands were deposited in layers over millions of years. The layers are constructed of sediments such as sand, silt, and clay that have been
cemented together into sedimentary rocks. Different environments caused different sediments to accumulate there at different times. The oldest
formations are at the bottom and the youngest are at the top.
The black Pierre Shale is the bottom layer of the Badlands and was deposited between 69 and 75 million years ago when a shallow sea stretched
across what is now the Great Plains. Sediment filtered through the seawater, forming a black mud on the sea floor that has since hardened into shale.
Fossil clams, ammonites, and sea reptiles are

White Creek Location
This segment of White Creek is located the farthest away from major urban development, and, thus, might be an overall healthier system as a result.
There is an overall proliferation of many different of species (colonizers, stabilizers, and riparian woody) that occur and thrive in various spatial
configurations (partially determined by proximity to stream, elevation, and characteristics of the underlying substrate). There appears to be a substantial
(s worthy of note that a large, above–ground sewage line ran perpendicularly over the river towards a sewage treatment plant some distance away. There
were no signs of leakage or other issues that might compromise or affect the surrounding hydrology of the site.
The erosion and sedimentation observed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Within the stream channel, there was an array of different types of small juvenile fish species; no amphibians or reptiles were observed, though the
conditions for their existence seemed to be adequate. There was an abundance of macroinvertebrates throughout the site, which became more
pronounced nearer the stream channel. There was also an adequate amount of bird species observed on the site. Overall, the natural and relatively
undisturbed conditions of this section of White Creek provided an adequate habitat for general biotic

Investigating The Spatial Difference Between The East...
AIM:
The investigate the spatial difference between the east coast and west cost of New Zealand. Comparing Muriwai Beach with Eastern Beach
HYPOTHESIS:
A west coast beach is a destructive environment compared to an eastern coast environment which is constructive.
Introduction:
Muriwai Beach is a coastal community on the west coast of the Auckland region, in the north island of New Zealand. Muriwai is approximately
17ilometer m west of kumeu and 42 kilometre northwest of Auckland. Muriwai draws lots of surfers and fisherman.
Eastern beach is a suburb of Auckland New Zealand. It is located on the eastern city of the city centre. Its most common attraction is a popular palm
fringed beach, in summer, the temperature attracted thousands of people around Auckland.
In this internal I would like to investigate whether there is a spatial difference between Eastern Beach and Muriwa, and find out what caused the two
beaches to be different. To achieve this I will use different equipment's to help collect the data I need
Methodology:
Equipment
Stop watch
Clinometer
Ranging poles (*2)
Tape measure
Float( tennis ball or apple)
Alba wind watch
Wind o We used an Alba wind watch to record the wind speed and the direction at both the base and the top of the dunes to see if there is any
variation. We used a compass to record the direction of the wind.

Long Shore Drift o The stopwatch is used to measure whether long–shore drift occurs at eastern beach,

How Natural Processes Operate at Coastal Geographic...
How Natural Processes Operate at Coastal Geographic Environment
Natural Processes are actions or events that have natural causes, which result in natural events. The three main coastal environment processes that
operate at Muriwai are Coastal Erosion, Coastal Transportation and Coastal Deposition.
The elements that interact to produce natural processes are wind, waves and tides. Each phenomenon at Muriwai's coastal geographic environment has
been produced by interaction.
Coastal Erosion is a process at Muriwai that gradually wears away the rock particles of the earth's surface, transporting them to another location. There
are many types of processes that cause erosion at Muriwai such as wave erosion, wind erosion and wave ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The blowhole was formed by vertical, hydraulic and mechanical erosion causing the cracks and fissures to enlarge over time to produce this hole.
Types of wave erosion operating on the headland have produced the cave.
Wave Refraction is an important process as it influences wave erosion on Otakamiro headland and on the beach at Muriwai (refer to Diagram 1).
Wave Transportation (Longshore Drift) varies spatially due to wave refraction. It is the process by which waves alter their course as they interact in
shallow water with the seabed along the coastline. This process produces wave erosion, which focuses its energy on Otakamiro Point.
Diagram 1
Constructive, Destructive and Dissipative are the types of waves that operate at Muriwai that cause erosion.
Dissipative waves are the waves usually found at Muriwai –– they lose their energy before they reach the shore as they usually break on the offshore
bar. Constructive waves are long waves with little height that leave material at the top of the beach, building it up.
Destructive waves are erosive and carry material seawards.
Wind Erosion is the driving mechanism for Coastal Transportation and Coastal Deposition. Strong winds have a better ability to cause erosion at
Muriwai's Coastal Geographic Environment. Wind erosion is most effective on well–drained landforms such as sand dunes. Loose particles are more
easily eroded than wet heavy soil, sand and

A Study On Sediment Properties
Sediment properties were measured from three surface scrapes of sediment taken at each quadrat in Essex and Morecambe. These sediment scrapes
were frozen at –20В°C for subsequent analysis. In the laboratory, 5g of the sediment was air dried, gently crushed and passed through a 2mm sieve.
Particle size distribution of the <2 mm fraction was undertaken following Malvern Mastersizer protocol (v1.3) (http://www.geog.cam.ac.uk/facilities
/laboratories/techniques/psd.html) at the University of Cambridge. Only one sample was taken at each of the Northern Irish sites, when this was not
possible, the Agri – Food and Biosciences Institute, supplied data on sediment particle sizes. Comparative particle size distribution indices (Logarithmic
mean, standard deviation, kurtosis and skew) were calculated according to Folk and Ward (1957) and analysed using GRADISTAT software (Folk &
Ward, 1957; Blott & Pye, 2001).
Particle size distribution was recorded at the site–level for the Northern Irish sites, but was highly resolved for Essex and Morecambe (three replicates
per quadrat within each sites), requiring us to standardise the data across locations. To do so, we first tested for significant differences between the
three replicate samples taken at each quadrat within each site, and upon finding no significant differences, pooled replicates giving a quadrat mean. We
then tested for significant differences in sediment properties within each pooled quadrat at each site, which were not

A Report On Heavy Metal Distribution
Heavy metal distribution in sediments around Kallur Mandli and Sagar road Industial estate Shimoga, Karnataka, India.
Jayaram G. N.1, Chandrashekarappa K. N.2 and Anantha Murthy K S2
1 Dept. Of Civil Engineering, Shree Devi Institute of Technology, Kenjar, Mangalore– 574142
Email: jayaramhonnavar@gmail.com
2 Dept. of Applied geology, Kuvempu University, Shimoga, Karnataka– 577451
Abstract
The present study was taken up to identify trace metals as well as to assess the extent of anthropogenic inputs into the Shimoga area. The Kallur
mandli and Sagar road industial estate of shimoga in and around collected sediment samples from ponds, channel and, river for present study. The
samples were analyzed heavy metals Viz., Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe. The obtained results are compared with non–polluted sediments of near
gadikoppa pond sample, which is away from the industrial activity for used as back ground values. The study area samples exhibits higher
concentration of Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe than the unpolluted values. Thus, industrial activity has allowed the accumulation of certain heavy
metals by transportation and deposition into surrounding area of pond, channel and river sediment matrix. The contamination of the sediments with
metals at few locations is attributed to industries and other anthropogenic causes.
Key words: Shimoga, Trace elements, pond, channel, river
1.Introduction The sediment generally preserves a very good historical record of changes in

The precise and depictive accumulation of a stream flow...
The precise and depictive accumulation of a stream flow data is vital in illustrating the water resources of a region. Hydrometric gauging stations are
locations containing tools and equipment used to calculate the flow of water in rivers, lakes, canals and streams. The aim of this assignment is to
develop my understanding of stream power and specific stream power through my individual critical assessment of the class stream power exercise
results. Stream power is a criterion that measures the amount of energy diffusion against river or stream bank. Specific stream power is the criterion
that measures stream power per unit area of the river or stream channel. The stream power and specific stream power calculations were applied on the
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
From Street view, the river is located close to the gauging station. Using the scale legend, the length of the river upstream and downstream from the
gauging station is measured. And using an elevation profile, the height difference is obtained. Then the distance along the channel is divided by the
height difference to determine the water surface slope.
Calculating Stream power involves two elements: known constants and unknown variables. The known constants include gravitational constant of 9.8
m/s2 and the density of water at 1000 kg/m3. The unknown variables are discharge and water surface slope. By multiplying the both the constants and
variables, the stream power is determined.
Calculating specific stream power involves dividing the steam power by the channel width.
Results
The results of the bank full discharge and stream power are susceptible to the cross sections background and differ due to the various river motions
and dynamics, particularly during flood events. Moreover, the shuttle radar map on an approximately 90 meter grid portraying the stream power of
Irish rivers show vertical instability of the river channels from the longitudinal profile of the eastern Irish rivers.
The bank full discharge generally increases from upstream to downstream, due to the where the majority of hydrometric gauging stations are situated
which are in locations that inhabit distinct, constant and lone

Callytharra Formation Essay
4.3 Methods
Methods used included, taking GPS points at different rock units and marking them onto an aerial map to distinguish bearings and lithologies,
traversing the area, and identifying rock and fossils types.
4.4 Regional Geology
The Callytharra Formation and associated unit Moogooloo Sandstone are found in the Merlinleigh Sub–basin of the Southern Carnarvon Basin. The
Callytharra Formation was forming toward the end of the last major glaciation and represents formations that were deposited in a cool temperate
climate. Moogooloo Sandstone is restricted within the Merlinleigh Sub–basin, within an average thickness of 35m (Mory & Backhouse, 1997)
4.5 Lithology/Palaeontology
The Moogooloo Sandstone formed in the early Permian and consists ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Literature suggests that the Wandagee Formation conformably overlies the Quinnanie Shale (Mory & Backhouse, 1997). These two sections were
most likely deposited within a marine shelf, perhaps below the storm water wave base (notebook page 33). The Quinnanie, displaying no trace fossils
or bioturbation and generally massive in structure may suggest that it was deposited at greater depths than the Wandagee Formation or it may suggest a
cycle of shallowing and deepening waters, due to tidal influences. The Quinnanie representing deepened waters. Its more organic make–up may also
indicate that it was deposited at greater depths than the Wandagee. The Wandagee Formation contains a vast number of structures that indicate a
shallower environment than the Quinnanie. Whilst still being deposited below the storm water wave base, it may be possible that it was deposited
during a shallowing oscillation. Trace fossils that were burrowing indicate shallower waters, the stratigraphic log demonstrates these relationships,
figure 22).
5.7 Petroleum Potential
Quinnanie Shale is suggested to be a source rock, it has fair levels of organics, but has low generating potential, and is most likely more gas prone. The
Byro Group itself contains some source rocks. However, it is suggested that this system is immature (Ghori, 1998)
5.8 Discussion of the Williambury

Oscula Study of a Sponge Essay
All the sponge parameters measured in our study in between the two discrete depth zones revealed a clear statistical difference and consistently
higher values for the shallow location except from the sponge surface area (Median shallow,deep = 85, 152 cm2, respectively) and oscular number
per sponge area (Median shallow,deep = 0.04, 024 cm2 respectively). Similar to our study of turbidity in the previous section the parameters given
above for the deeper zone was higher for the sponges with lesser pumping rates, but this difference observed to be eminent for the depth comparison
(Table 4). The comparative study of shallow and deep locations at the two pristine sites of southern side of Bodrum Peninsula showed that there is a
high chance of... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The most efficient sponge patch at the deep site processed 0.166 cm3 cm–2 s–1 amount of seawater with 23 oscula collectively pumping. These
numbers clearly show that C. reniformis specimens possessing few numbered large sized osculas, pump more efficiently than sponges with many
small sized oscula. This raises a question in mind; is it better to have single enormous sized oscule or many smaller sized osculas? Our analysis
marks out a discrete large sized oscule provides a clear advantage on pumping efficiency to the sponges living in the wave zone, but in the meantime
at a cost of maintaining a smaller sized body and perhaps less growth. The sponge specimens living in the deeper zones compensates this disadvantage
by spreading through a larger surface and forming many oscular openings.
The shallow pristine site, Meteor Bay is generally protected from wave action, but there are regular storm events throughout the year. Absence of
oceanic water currents leaves wave action as the major source of mixing and water movement. A possible advantage for C. reniformis specimens to
acquire larger sized oscules might be described with the need of catching desired food particles in a water movement zone affected by wave action.
Continuous oscillation of particles in a wave action could make it harder to catch desired particles for a

The Geologic Record
It can be argued by some geologists that significantly more time is lost at bedding planes than is recorded by the accumulation of sediment and its
later lithification into a sedimentary rock. In the present paper, the continuity of the sedimentary record is investigated. It is hypothesized that
sedimentary strata preserved predominately records episodic sedimentation events and gaps represented by bedding planes symbolize more time than
the preserved strata. The incompleteness of the geologic record and the role of rare events was studied using data gathered from a variety of
sedimentary outcrops and cores. The author addressed his hypothesis using this collected data in terms of sediment preservation and represented
preservation as a function of two modes of geomorphic processes: Magnitude and frequency. The author tested his hypothesis using relatively modern
storm events to represent sedimentation, showing how daily processes can distort the geologic record, and by using ancient examples to illustrate how
some storms can be preserved in spectacular condition.
The results of this study support the hypothesis that the stratigraphic record represents episodic phenomena rather than continuous deposition. When
describing fluvial processes, the study was significant in that infrequent, extremely high magnitude fluvial events in a canyon located below base level
leaves sediment deposits that are preserved for a long period of time. In contrast, frequent floods occurring the

Spring Lake Creek And Its Effects On Water Quality And...
Spring Lake Creek is located off of County road E in Sawyer County. The Spring Lake creek has a culvert that goes under County road E to Spring
Lake. The culvert has the water flowing from Spring Lake into Spring Lake creek. With the road right by Spring Lake creek, one would think how
much of the runoff from the road affect the water quality and invertebrate life. That is exactly the hypothesis a group from the Fresh Water Ecology
class had come up with and wanted to experiment by testing two pools and two riffles. One set closest to the bridge and another away from the bridge.
Historic events might have played a role in the conclusion of the experiment.
Introduction Spring Lake Creek can be found on county road E off of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
That mink ranch has caused DDT to runoff into Spring Lake from the mink farmers washing out the mink pens. That DDT runoff eventually made
its way to spring Lake creek. (Heim, 2016). DDT is no longer legal in the United States of America since 1972. It was banned in the United States
because DDT was very persistent in the environment and can travel long distances in the upper atmosphere (DDT Ban takes effect, 2015). DDT
was first used in World War II to control typhus, malaria, and body lice (epa, 2015). Around the year 2000, The Wisconsin DNR washed out their
firefighting foam in Spring Lake creek killing off many clams and possibly different kinds of species. It is also very possible that there were species in
Spring Lake creek that are no longer in there due to that event (Heim, 2016). Spring Lake creek initially had beaver dams in it too. In the 1920's,
the beaver dams were removed by dynamite. Once the beaver dams started to show up again in the 1990's, the beaver dams were removed manually
(Heim, 2016). Spring Lake is also a part of Red Cedar lake watershed (Integraded resources management plan 2010, 2010).
Materials
пѓ Thermometer
пѓ D–Net
пѓ Pans
пѓ SICI Sheets
пѓ Waders
Methods The day the experiment was conducted was on April 18th 2016 at Spring Lake creek. Spring Lake Creek is located on county road E about
less than a quarter mile from Williams road. In order for the fresh water ecology class to conduct

Weathering And Erosion Of Soft Rocks
Soft rocks are very important geomaterials since they are heavily used in construction for example, buildings, road and dams but they sometimes seem
to cause some problems due to their sedimentary properties like fast weathering and low strength. Weathering is a process in which rock break down
or dissolve with the help of natural agents. Weathering and erosion are constantly changing the earth's surface, so that has a big impact on construction
and usage of soft rocks over time. Weathering can be either mechanical or chemical. Some regions in the world mainly possess weak sedimentary
rocks and very low in other stronger rock like igneous or metamorphic. Because of the these weak characteristics, it might be tough to use soft rocks
especially since some methods and systems are made mainly for hard rocks. These issues that we are dealing with lead to the need of the
understanding of soft rocks, how they work and how to prevent them from breaking up and crumbling in order to maximize their usage.
Weathering and Erosion
Weathering is the process where rocks and minerals break down or dissolve into smaller pieces and fragments. Erosion is then the transportation of
weathering remains. This is done with the help of natural agents such as water, wind, animals..etc. It all depends on the composition of the rock,
different agents such as temperature change and rainfall amount. Water for examples is the most common, like when it seeps in the pores of rocks,
freezes overnight and

North Carolina State University 's Environmental...
Introduction During this semester I traveled with the North Carolina State University's Environmental Technology and Management program ET
201 class, under the direction of Dr. Teresa Litzenberger, to Little Rock Creek in Raleigh North Carolina. Little Rock Creek is a small stream
located in southeast raleigh near the Walnut Creek Wetland Center. Located in a watershed of approximately 705.879 acres, the creek looks like an
upside down uppercase "L" from a map perspective. The creek floor is sandy with a few small rocks (cobblestone) in areas. The stream has plenty of
tree cover to provide shade. However, the lack of large trees encourages the curves in the creek to widen which allows the water to slow down and
create pools throughout the creek. According to Title 15A of the North Carolina Administrative Code, Rule .0302 contains the classifications for
waters located within the Neuse River Basin (15A NCAC 02L .0312). Little Rock Creek, however, is not classified and therefore follows Rule .0301
which simply states that it should carry the classification of the stream to which it is a tributary (.
Assessment and Methodology The Rapid Stream Assessment Technique (RSAT) uses data measured in the field to determine a stream's condition.
These data fields include channel stability, channel scouring or sediment deposition, physical instream habitat, water quality, riparian habitat conditions,
and biological indicators of macroinvertebrates. The RSAT ranking for each

Analysis Of Centennial Park Pond System
1. Introduction and objectives
Centennial Park has the largest freshwater wetland system in inner metropolitan area of Sydney. Its ponds cover approximately 26 ha of area
connected in a water flow system that acts as detention basin for stormwater drainage during flood events (Centennial Parklands, ponds, 2016).
Moreover, these ponds provided the water as the Sydney's main source of drinking water from 1837. The park provides an open area for families and
kids to enjoy picnics and therefore the pond is required to maintain its water quality and sustainable for the environment.
The report reviews the Centennial Park pond system; it acts as a performance around the outskirts of the flood retention basin, and the report also
reviews regarding full flood conservation and water quality norm to find a potential problem in the system and is coming up with improvements.
2. Background
Flooding History: Historical records show that there were several flooding within the catchment November 1984, January1991. For instance, driver
Avenue was road flooded (Michael Wyk , 2016).Water Pollution: From previous engineering reports, from early mid1990s, it was estimated that
blue–green algal blooms occurred in most of the ponds in the Centennial Park over several years (Mal Brown, 2012).Due to the accumulation of the
nutrients in the Musgrave Pond from the storm water inflow, the nutrient enriched the water in the pond (Mal Brown, 2012).
There is no doubt that this situation deteriorates

Lake Forsyth Case Study
Identification of impacting activities on Lake Forsyth
Lake Forsyth has undergone major natural and anthropogenic changes since European settlement (3). Following the arrival of European settlers during
the 1830s deforestation occurred on a large scale. Prior to this Lake Forsyth would have been surrounded by Podocarp and Conifer–hardwood forests.
The ridges and peaks would have been covered with low scrub and tussock. These changes have increased nutrient inputs above what would have
occurred naturally.
Basaltic soils of the Lake Forsyth catchment are naturally high in inorganic phosphorus and removal of forest has caused an increase in sediment
entering the system than would have naturally.
The increased erosion caused the formation ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This included quantifying the water flow into the lake under dry summer conditions for 2011/2012. The aim of this research project was to gather
information on the inputs into the lake, then use this information to design a phosphorus and sediment budget. The Okana and Okuti were found to be
the dominant inputs (7) shown in figure 4. Below. This study is a good indication of the water budget over general summer conditions but cannot be
extrapolated for the annual water budget. The report also recommends continuous monitoring of the two river flows the Okana and Okuti for a
minimum of one

Organic Geochemical Studies Of Cretaceous Source Rocks Of...
ORGANIC GEOCHEMICAL STUDIES OF CRETACEOUS SOURCE ROCKS OF AFIKPO BASIN, SOUTHEASTERN, NIGERIA ADIELA, U.P,
1. AYODELE MOSES OYEWOLE 2
1 Department of Petroleum Engineering, Nigerian Agip Oil Company, Port Harcourt 2 Department of Geology, University of Port Harcourt, Port
Harcourt, Nigeria
.
ABSTRACT
Ten shales samples obtained in X–Formation, Afikpo Basin and were subjected to geochemical analysis to determine the TOC , SOM andRock eval
pyrolysis. The TOC values varied from 0.6–7.36 % 1.60w% – 1.80w% with an average of 1.66w%, while the SOM values ranged from 100–380 % .
Tmax range from 442–462 . The above results show that the TOC values fall above the minimum threshold for hydrocarbon generation potential. The
minimum threshold value for TOC is 0.5%. The average SOM value is also indicative of good source rock potential for the studied samples. The Tmax
values in the study area shows that the sediments are immature and have not reached the oil generation phase, but are within the gas phase. The organic
matter quantity is adequate for sediments to yield hydrocarbon whereas the organic matter quality is inadequate to expel hydrocarbon.
(I)INTRODUCTION
Most people now believe that oil and gas are formed when the remains of dead animals and plants are mixed with sediments, buried and formed into
rocks and then heated deep underground. The oil and gas then seep out through porous rocks where they may or may not collect in an oil or gas field.

Newhaven Beaches Research Paper
Investigate process and/ or landform(s) along a stretch of a coast
Hypothesis
'The transport of sediment affects the morphology of Newhaven beach and Castlehead cliff'
This investigation will be exploring whether the movement of pebbles, shingle, shells and other materials found on the beach have impacted on the
shape and structure of Newhaven beach and Castlehead Cliff. One of the key processes this investigation will focus on is that of long shore drift
caused by strong prevailing winds, prevailing wind is the direction from which the wind usually blows. Cliffs are made from mainly two materials,
chalk which is at the bottom and sand and clay at the top. If cliffs are facing the direction of prevailing wind it may lead in high rates of cliff ... Show
Using a ranging pole ensuring a consistent height from different variable factors such as height. By using a clinometer it is securing a valid angle to
create an accurate beach profile, using a tape measure with units such as cm and mm establishes more precise data. Constructing a beach profile
determines how the size of the beach changes. By repeating the investigation it allows results to be as precise and reliable as possible. This ultimately
helps me to either prove or disprove my hypothesis.
Beach sediment sizeBeach sediment classification card1)From each ranging pole A–B, observe the sediment from the distance stretched
2)On the IPad, on the adobe reader app open the document called 'Beach sediment classification card'
3)from this card compare the area of sediment onto the beach to the card
4)repeat steps 1–3 until the top of the beach is reached By identifying the sediment size at each station allows the amount of long shore drift
happening at each stage of the beach to be assessed and evaluated. If the size of the rocks decrease in size closer to the harbour arm, it will help prove
my hypothesis
Cliff profileSkitch app on iPad1)Take a picture of the Castlehead cliff using the skitch app on the IPad at the top of the beach, further away from the
sea. Label somewhere on the picture that this is the point at

Characteristics And Processes Of Gravel Bed Rivers
Gravel bed rivers are comprised of sediment particle sizes between 2–64mm, but may also include a degree of sand as high as 50% (Bunte and Abt
2001). This wide array of particle sizes can affect the rates of erosion, deposition, and overall morphology of a river. Understanding the rate and
likelihood of these processes is crucial in comprehending contemporary river environments, their behaviour and surrounding ecology. Detailed
characteristics and processes of gravel bed rivers is not well understood as there are considerable variabilities at the bar, reach and river scales (Rice
and Church 2009). In an attempt to advance understanding of the processes and mechanisms involved, analysis of the sediment is required. To quantify
the size and distribution of sediment in a river, a large sample set is needed in order to be fully representative of the area surveyed, but this is more
complex in gravel bedded rivers than sand as distribution can be either heterogeneous or homogenous (Bunte and Abt 2001). Considering this,
sampling methods must be chosen appropriately and in accordance of objectives of the study in order to gain data specific and useful enough to
address them. This report aims to address the characterisation of grain size distribution of both the bar–scale and reach–scale of the River Ashop, in the
Peak District. To do this, two methods have been utilised: Wolman sampling (1954), and advanced digital granulometry (Graham et al. 2005). Patterns
and distribution

Agent Wind Erosion Research Paper
The agent of erosion known as Agent wind is very dangerous and affects us all in many different ways through many different means. Agent wind
picks up silt, sand, dust, and other types of small particles and causes one of two very distinct types of weathering. Abrasion Is where wind erosion
picks up sediments and uses the force of wind to knock it repeatedly against the rock. It creates weird multiple holes or little scratches along the
rocks' surfaces. Deflation is where agent wind simply picks up sediments like the ones listed earlier. Agent wind then collectively moves them and
then proceeds to drop them off at another location. This process is known as deposition. As far as what part of the world is affected by wind erosion,
wind erosion

The Sediments Within The Intertidal Zone
The sediments in the intertidal zone are predominantly composed of silt and clay that display substantial distribution in grain size distribution due to
hydrodynamic and vegetation cover changes, such as grass, mangroves and other plantations. Sediment pH, total Corg (%) and percentages of sand, silt
and clay obtained from the samples of 13 sampling stations are summarized in Table 2, whilst sediment pH was in a narrow alkaline range of 7.2 to 8.6.
Similarly, Corg varied little from 0.47 to 0.91 %. Such low Corg are consistent to other coastal regions of India (Chatterjee et al. 2007) and might be
the result of marine sedimentation and mixing processes at the sediment–water interface where the rate of delivery, as well as rates of degradation by
microbial–mediated processes can be high ( Canuel and Martens, 1993). This can be also related to poor absorbability of organics to negatively
charged quartz grains, which predominate in sediments in this estuarine environment (Sarkar et al., 2004). The sediment samples also showed a
variable admixture of sand (0.4 – 37.4 %), silt (24.4 – 66.7%) and clay (26.7 – 75.1 %). Previous studies demonstrated that fine–grained sediments
facilitate the accumulation of heavier metals and organic matter contents (Bayen, 2012; Yu et al., 2012; Zahra et al., 2014).With respect to texture
class, variable erosion and depositions in the study stations along with vigorous estuarine mixing, suspension–resuspension and
flocculation–deflocculation can

The Importance Of Sediment
Sediment samples were taken from 14 stations during the cruise program organized by the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea Ecological Research Institute
(PGOSERI), Bandar Abbas, Iran in February 2014. The sediment samples were collected by Van Veen Grab sampler (Hydro
–bios, Germany) and then
were transferred to sterilized 50 ml tubes, and were kept refrigerated until shipboard processing later that day. The position and depth of sampling
stations were recorded (Fig. 1).
Selective isolation of actinomycetes
Two physical treatments and four isolation media were implemented. Drying treatment was applied by desiccation of sediment samples in a laminar
flow hood for a week. After grinding and fivefold serial dilution, the samples were inoculated on ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The purified isolates were inoculated into 50 ml of the Hickey Tresner broth medium (DSMZ) prepared with filtered seawater. The seeded media were
incubated in a shaking incubator (220 rpm) at 28 ЛљC for 5 days. After centrifugation, 100 Вµl of the culture supernatants were added to the punctured
wells on the Muller Hinton agar (for bacteria) or Potato Dextrose Agar (for fungi) that previously inoculated with test strains. The test strains included
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538, Micrococcus luteus ATCC 10240, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas aeroginosa ATCC 27853,
Aspergillus niger PTCC 5057 and Candida albicans ATCC 10231. The antimicrobial activity of the culture broths were determined by measurement of
the inhibition zone diameters (mm) after the incubation period at 35 ЛљC (Madigan et al., 1997).
Production and extraction of antimicrobial secondary metabolites
The selected potent isolates were inoculated to the seeding medium containing 1% malt extract, 1% peptone 2% glycerol and were incubated at 28
ЛљC in shaking incubator (220 rpm) for 48 hours. After termination of the incubation, the seeded cultures were inoculated to the optimized production
medium. After incubation for 5 days at 28ЛљC, the aliquots of filtrate–fermented broth were extracted with ethyl acetate twice (1:1 v/v). The ethyl
acetate layers were evaporated and the crude extracts were kept for the subsequent experiments (Seidel,

Chesapeake Bay Sediments
Our watershed, the chesapeake bay stretches more than 64,000 square miles and is home to about 18 million people.The bay provides us with a lot
of things like fishes,salt and water for farming etc. But, the bay is starting to get polluted and many organisms in the bay are dying because of
sediments, algae blooms etc. One of the major problems and also a problem in my neighborhood is sediments. Sediments forms when rocks and soil
erode or weather. About 5.2 million tons of sediment enter the bay every year. When it rains, those sediments are carried to the bay by runoff. Because
of the small size, the particles float on the surface of water and often travel long distances during rainstorms. When there are too many of these
sediments, the water

Cape Cod Erosion
Cape Cod, a little arm that sticks out into the Atlantic Ocean, is a popular destination all year round but especially in the Summer for beachgoers.
Cape Cod was formed about 18,000 years ago when the glaciers started to melt, but how was it formed? It formed through a process called weathering
and erosion. Weathering is the process of wearing away or changing the appearance or texture of (something) by long exposure to the water, wind, and
even ice. Erosion is the process that takes the results of weathering away by water, wind, or other natural processes. The sediment was picked up by the
glaciers and slowly eroded down towards Cape Cod. As the glaciers moved south, the warmer weather began to melt the glaciers and they dumped
their load of sediment to form Cape Cod. In total, 3 glaciers formed Cape Cod. The middle lobe retreated first leaving behind sediment that created the
middle part of the arm (the bicep). Next the easternmost lobe retreated and the sediment it left behind created the upper part of the arm (Provincetown).
When the last glaciers melted about 18,000 years ago leaving behind an usual looking landform. Today, scientists know that the glaciers brought the
sediment because they are all different colors, textures, and all have different layers.
A big problem in Cape Cod is beach erosion. The first reason why the beaches are eroding is because of rock jetties. Rock jetties that separate beaches
interrupt the natural transfer of sand by the tides and wind. The

Bedrock River
If a river flows over bedrock, the bedrock restricts widening and lateral mobility which can distort the shape of the bends in the river (Hooke and Yorke
2011). Substrate influences channel form at the reach scale, with bedrock channel found to be narrower and deeper than alluvial channels (Whitbread
et al. 2015). This means that the substrate the river is flowing over does have an effect on what the river is doing. The bedrock restricts widening and
lateral mobility, which limits how fast the river can meander. If the river is flowing over a substrate that is easily erodible, and then if it erodes down to
bedrock the river will become less sinuous.
Meandering rivers are not common in bedrock channels because bedrock channels are narrower and deeper than alluvial channels (Whitbread et al.
2015). The alluvial channels allow the river channel to become wide and therefore the river is able to meander because its channel is so wide.
Changing the type of bedrock can influence the width and depth of the river (Whitbread et al. 2015). The maximum width/depth ratio decreases with
increasing fracture spacing (Whitbread et al. 2015). This is because the fractures create a weak spot in the rock that allows the river to erode into those
fractures. Adding ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The substrate that the river flows over has an effect on the interaction between groundwater and the bottom of the river. If the river is flowing over an
impermeable substrate e.g. shale, mudstone, any crystalline rock etc. and then erodes through that impermeable substrate the river could cease to exist.
The substrate has a major effect on the river. The substrate can determine what type of river is formed, how much sediment the river is transporting,
how much erosion is occurring in the river etc. The substrate is a very import factor when anyone is studying a

Sediment Contamination
Sediments are formed from fine–grained waste material due to erosion from the mine site. It often contains dissolved metals as a result of the mining
processes containing some toxic constituents such as lead and high levels of mercury. During severe storm events and high snowmelt periods, erosion
transports a significant amount of sediments and chemicals pollutants into locals streams. Dissolved metals often settle under the stream bed and cause
decreases in macroinvertebrate and benthic invertebrate populations. Metal accumulation in aquatic organisms, particularly benthic species, can also
lead to acute and chronic toxicity to aquatic life [EPA 35]. In addition, research has shown a correlation between an increase in suspended solids with a
decrease in density of macroinvertebrate and benthic invertebrate populations. High turbidity can also reduce passages of light and prevent
photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants [EPA 34–35]. Aquatic plants are a major food source for macroinvertebrates and benthic invertebrates. The
reduction of plants can stimulate further declines in aquatic life populations.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Metals that settle in the stream bed can be transported by bioaccumulation. If contaminated fish is consumed, metals may be transferred to humans and
impact their physical health. Human are exposed to the toxic metals by drinking water contaminated by sediments [EPA 35]. In addition to potential
impacts on human and aquatic life, sedimentation can also physically impact the hydraulic system. Physical impact associated with mining includes
the filling of deep pools that can result in the loss of habitat and temperature increases [EPA 35]. Excess sediment can build up behind dams and raise
reservoir water levels. In addition to this, sedimentation can also cause the channel to widen and become shallower. Thus, increasing the frequency of
overbank flow [EPA

Shorelines Over Time
I would have to say trying to stabilize the different shorelines can possible contribute to its erosion over time. The various techniques for helping to
preserve our n shorelines could possibly include building a habitat somewhat artificially to help protect the shoreline. As well, someone may wish to
secure the local vegetation in a range that will likewise give an environment to diversion and natural life in the region. However, one would say these
processes are temporary as a result the movement of sediment is always changing. All the same, it is a phenomenal approach to attempt to secure the
shoreline. Shoreline erosion is a natural process that takes place on lakes, streams, waterways and along the coast. It is the progressive, albeit

Land Use ( & 7 )
Land use (&7)
Catchment is important for fish, macroinvertebrate and algal biomass, biotic diversity, instream water quality, and instream nutrients. Removal of
forest cover in catchments is land use impacts on streams. Urbanization and land use for intensive cropping and irrigated agriculture has negative
impact on stream ecosystem health, where ecosystem health is defined in terms of ecological integrity. The capacity of the river or stream to maintain
ecosystem structure and function. In urban areas, the increase in the catchment area covered agriculture, pumping etc so result of that changes in
hydrology stream and declines in stream macro invertebrate diversity and loss of specific taxa. (&7) and Indicator and ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The ecosystem health indicators strongly influenced by land use.(&7)
The most impact of land use is sedimentation and water quality.
Sedimentation
The deforestation, agriculture, resource extraction, urbanization, and infrastructure development have a greater influence on erosion rates and sediment
transport in rivers which directly affect for climate change.
All these activities impact on sedimentation process of the River in different ways. Assessing these impacts comprehensively is important for more
effective environmental management of the river drainage basin. The natural vegetation has been destroyed by humans and slope lands have been
cultivated. Thus, erosion is extremely high, and suspended sediment load and concentration in river. The sedimentation, the level of riverbed has risen
continuously and the water level at a given discharge so for maintain that scientist build artificial levees higher and higher. However, in the meantime,
with the rapid development of agriculture and industry, water consumption has increased sharply, greatly reducing the river flow. Sediment deposition
in river channel depends on the relationship between the ability of the stream flow to carry sediment and the river's "load" i.e., on the amount of
sediment supplied to the river from the drainage basin. Erosion and sediment control measures reduce the amount of sediment entering the river,
resulting in a

Colorado River and Canyons
277 river miles long, a mile deep and at it's widest point 18 miles wide. (https://www.nps.gov/grca/index.html). Full of color and decorated by a
variety of formations crafted by nature's artful hand this natural wonder draws about five million people every year who participate in a range of
activities from hiking and camping to white water rafting. While many stare in awe and appreciation at the breathtaking view the Grand Canyon has
to offer few take time to contemplate its beginnings millions of years ago. In his book, The Exploration of the Colorado River and its Canyons, J.W.
Powell stated: One might imagine that this was intended for the library of the gods; and it was. The shelves are not for books, but form the stony
leaves of one great book. He who would read the language of the universe may dig out letters here and there, and with them spell the words, and read,
in a slow and imperfect way, but still so as to understand a little, the story of creation." (http://www.nps.gov/grca/naturescience/upload
/3–Grand–Canyon–Geology6–2009.pdf).
Within the layers of rock that form the Grand Canyon, a story is tolled of its own creation, a story that also gives us a great deal of understanding of
the geological progress of the world to its present state. Geologist recognize three distinct sets or groups of rocks found in the Grand Canyon. These are
the Vishnu Basement Rocks, the Grand Canyon Supergroup and lastly, found in the top two–thirds of the canyon the

Grand Canyon Essay Outline
Grand Canyon
The Grand Canyon is one of the greatest natural creations our planet has to offer. Have you ever been mesmerized by the giant cliffs, massive ridges,
or the wide array of beautiful colors? If you answered yes, this paper is just for you! After reading this, you will be well educated about the Grand
Canyon.
The Grand Canyon is in the northwest corner of Arizona, bordering Utah and Nevada. Did you know that more than five million people visit Grand
Canyon National Park per year? The Grand Canyon is roughly 280 miles long, 18 miles wide, and in some places more than 1 mile deep! The
volume of this enormous park is estimated to be over 5.5 trillion cubic yards, now that is impressive! While the Colorado River carved this ... Show
Next, these rocks undergo erosion, which is the process of moving sediments from one place to another. Then, these sediments are deposited all at
one place and over time they start to converge and cement as layers which are also known as strata. As time keeps going, new sediments deposit and
cement together over old ones forming new layers. This is a repetitive process that eventually build up layers to make up a Sedimentary rock.
Approximately 40 major sedimentary rock layers exposed in the Grand Canyon National Park area range in age from about 200 million to nearly 2
billion years old. As you can see, sedimentary rock formation takes an excessive amount of time. So you now know how sedimentary rocks are
formed and how the Colorado River majorly eroded all the rock creating canyons. But here comes the million dollar question: where did all the rocks
come from? The answer to that question is The Continental Drift. The Earth's continents are not fixed in place, but rather float on a sea of molten
rock, meaning that they move around quite a bit. Over 250 million years, that "quite a bit" can turn into land masses moving thousands of miles.
Moreover, the Earth is made up of 20 Tectonic plates. Seven of these plates are very large and consist of entire continents or sea floors. The plate that
the Grand Canyon is located on is called "The North American Plate". At one time, this plate was considerably further south and consequently had a
very different climate than

Eosion : Cause, Causes And Effects Of Wind Erosion
Wind Erosion
Background
Wind Erosion is the process in which wind picks up dirt or particles and moves them elsewhere. Wind erosion most occurs in areas that are bare, flat
and have dry or sandy soil, anywhere soil dry, loose, or finely granulated. Wind erosion is a serious environmental problem because of the positive
effect it has, the more soil it moves the less room plants have to grow and the less plants there are means there are less roots to hold the soil in place
making it more loose. It causes dryness, loss of soil and deterioration of soil, air pollution and nutrient and productivity losses. Soil movement is
caused by the force of the wind against the ground. Each surface and soil type have a different amount of velocity it takes to move the soil particle.
Once the particles get this velocity they will move, depending on the particle size and wind velocity. There are three different types of soil movement
that happens during soil erosion. Suspension, Saltation, and Surface Creep are the three type of movement, the soil can reach almost any height but
most of it (over 93%) only reaches a meter.
Suspension occurs when fine dirt or dust particles are lifted into the wind. They can be thrown in the air by two ways, either by the wind or but
another particle hitting another. Once a particle is in the air it can travel extremely far distances and very high.
Saltation is the most common process that moves soil. Fine soil is lifted into the air and move horizontally and increase their velocity more and more
as they go. Dirt lifted during Saltation causes major damage to the surface and vegetation. They typically travel four times longer in distance than in
height. When the particle come in contact with a surface again it's either rebounded back into the air or hit other particles sending them into the air.
Surface Creep occurs when a big particle that can not be lifted into the air is moved. The process is caused by soil particles in saltation hitting a
bigger particle or the wind itself causing the particle to roll across the surface.
Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to demonstrate the relationship between particle size and distance in wind erosion.
Hypothesis
If the particle size increases,

Reservoir and Sedimentation Assessment
Introduction
The 1960's were considered the "golden age for dam construction" and contributed to thousands of dams being built across the United States. Dams
are regualarly built to support recreational activities as well as hydroelectric power and water supply purposes but people recently have realized many
of the negative impacts affiliated with them. Many are now 50 years old and due for relicensing which involves many tradeoffs for dam owners and
public stakeholders to consider. Urbanization below such structures has brought up safety concerns from land owners and recognition of ecosystem
degradation has flooded recent news and reports. Dam decommissioning is becoming more of a viable option for aging dams that are abandoned and
have lost their economical use. Over 500 dams have been removed from US riverine systems since 2000 and 51 alone in 2013 (American Rivers, 2013).
Each dam considered for removal requires a cost–benefit analysis to determine the best possible objectives and plan for removal. Many social,
ecological, and economical factors become part of the overall proposal. The fragmented rivers divide many biotic communities and restrict migration
for different species and organisms. Many ecosystems suffer from poor water quality and sedimentation loss downstream from dams. The removal of
these structures restores historic flow regimes and free flowing water that once existed in their natural and aesthetically pleasing states. This paper will
look at

Actively Meandering Rivers
Tabata et al. (2003) used hydraulic geometry to describe morphodynamics of anastomosing Columbia river. Jain and Sinha (2004) discussed about
causative factors and mechanism of fluvial dynamics of anabranching Baghmati river system. In their study they have observed that anabranching
phenomena of Baghmati river only occurs along middle river course. The authors suggested that inability to transport high sediment load due to gentle
channel slope and dominance of aggradation processes are responsible for anabranching of Baghmati river. Luchi et al. (2007) investigated small alpine
river to monitor morphodynamics of channel. Their study reveals that the longitudinal variations in grain size and slope largely determine the braiding
intensity of channel thus it signifluences in channel morphodynamics. Schimitt et al. (2007) analysed morphodynamics typology of upper Rhine river
basin based on multivariate statistical analysis. Hooke and Yorke, (2010) asserted that the channel morphological changes are not only associated with
the spatio–temporal variations in discharge and channel processes but it largely follows the episodic autogenic feedback mechanism. Sinha and Ghosh,
(2012) studied dynamics of river channel in eastern Ganga plain. Their study indicates that tectonic tilting, sedimentological readjustments are main
causative factors of channel dynamics in the eastern Ganga plain. Nicholas (2013) overviewed morphodynamics diversity of the large alluvial rivers of
the world. He

Plaster Of Paris
I.Purpose:
The purpose of the experiment is to determine how a mold and cast constructs fossils. The hypothesis is a fossil mold will form after the plaster of
paris is set and dried out. The justification for the hypothesis is a cast will form when an animal or plant is covered in sediments. Once the sediments
start to harden into a rock state the fossil will become captured and preserved. (Wile, 159–162)
II.Materials:
1.Modeling clay or Play–Doh
2.Plaster of paris
3.A paper plate
4.A shell or something with a distinctive design
5.Vaseline or another kind of petroleum jelly
6.Eye protection
III.Procedure:
The shell was covered in petroleum jelly then set on the counter while the modeling clay was being stretched out on plate. Once the modeling clay
was stretched out so it was two times bigger then the shell, the shell was firmly pushed into the clay. Before the shell was removed the plaster of
paris was mixed together using the direction on the package. When the shell was removed it formed the mold, the plaster of paris was poured over the
mold until the mold was filled. The plate was ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A mold is formed when an animal or plant are captured in sediments later hardening into sedimentary rock. Fossils are typically found in sedimentary
rock because igneous rock is created with magma at a temperature too high for an organic remains to survive. Metaphoric rock is created when
sedimentary or igneous rock has a high temperature and has high pressure. A fossil is able to form in metaphoric rock but the pressure and heat the
fossil is disconfirmed and useless. (Reference, "Why Are Fossils Only Found in Sedimentary Rock?") Weathering will start to affect the rocks form
and mainly the fossil captured inside. Weathering normally has more affect on the fossil causing the fossil inside to disintegrate. Sometimes the rock
will break open and then the only fossil remaining is a mold. (Wile,

Architecture of an Active Mud-Rich Turbidite System: The...
This review is on the scientific paper 'Architecture of an active mud–rich turbidite system: The Zaire Fan' by Droz et al [2] published in 2003. The
main purpose of this article was to take the seismic results from the ZaГЇAngo program, acoustic imagery and bathymetry information and present the
architecture of the Zaire Fan.
The Zaire Fan is located off the coast of the Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola on a mature passive continental margin at the base of the Zaire
River now named the Congo River. The Zaire Fan is a mud–rich turbidite system of particular importance to scientists as it is currently active. This
activity was first documented in 1964 as cable breaks located across the Congo River. These events were correlated with periods of flood activity and
determined to be the result of turbidity currents [2]. A submarine fan is an accumulation ofsediment that forms in a cone–like shape. The sediment is
generally transported from a canyon into a main feeder channel to be deposited near the continental shelf. It is known that turbidity currents and other
sediment gravity flows can form submarine fans.
The main features of a submarine fan include a canyon, channels and levees. Canyons carry sediment from the shelf down to the fan structure. It was
seen through imaging that the Zaire Canyon shows the characteristic V–shape cross section [6]. Canyons are the result of turbidity currents but could
also be formed by rivers during low sea level, mass wasting or

Geochemical Tracers Essay
4.2 Geochemical tracers
Due to recent advances in both quick analytical techniques for large numbers of samples and numerical source apportioning models that allow a more
detailed and quantitative understanding of the uncertainty associated with estimated results, the geochemical tracers are extensively used in recent
sediment fingerprinting studies (Franz et al. 2013; Grimes et al. 2007). Such as rare earth elements (REE; e.g., La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy,
Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu), major elements (e.g., Fe, K, Na, Al, Ca and Mg) and trace elements (e.g., As, Ba, Co, Cr, Cs, Hf, Sc, Ta, Ti, Th and Zr), in
both source soil and sediment samples, have been used in sediment fingerprinting studies (Horowitz et al. 2012; Hughes et al. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Natural geogenic REE signatures sometimes may be a potential proxy for identifying lacustrine sediment sources and soil erosion rates (Wen et al.
2014). Though REEs has many advantages, owning its relatively high cost, REEs have not been extensively used.
There are three approaches that can account for potential differences in sediment geochemistry relating to particle size and mineralogy. One commonly
used way of normalization is to use measured bulk concentrations in the total sediment sample to account for differences in sediment geochemistry. The
diluting effects of non–reactive constitutes (e.g., coarse sediment, quartz and feldspar grains) can be removed. The second way of normalization is to
divide the concentration of the potential tracer by the concentration of the conservative element (e.g., Al, Ti and Li). The third method is to incorporate
a correction factor into the mixing model (Collins et al. 1998). Moreover, the geochemical tracer method can also be applied to contemporary and
historic sedimentary deposits for reconstructing temporal changes in sediment provenance at the catchment scale (Thevenon et al. 2013).
4.3 Radionuclides
Atmospheric fallout radionuclides(FRN), such as 7Be, 10Be, 137Cs, 210Pb, 239Pu and 240Pu, effectively tag surface sediments and the concentration
declines markedly with depth and are preferentially absorbed to clay minerals and organic matter due to their high specific surface area which renders
them chemically

The Increasing Threat from Mercury in Our Aquatic Environment
Mercury contamination in aquatic environments is becoming an increasing threat to both wildlife and humans (Peterson S. A., 2007). Organisms in the
aquatic environment, particularly fish, bioaccumulate methylmercury from contaminated water and food, but predominately from food (Peterson S.
A., 2007). Mercury in the atmosphere exists in three inorganic forms: gaseous elemental mercury (GEM: Hg0), oxidized mercury typically called
reactive gaseous mercury (RGM: Hg2+), and particulate mercury (Hgp) (Hyun–Deok Choi, 2008). Once emitted, mercury can be transformed from one
species to another via photoreduction, reactions with halides, and other oxidation/reduction reactions (Hyun–Deok Choi, 2008). Methylmercury is the
bioavailable form of mercury, with well–documented adverse effects (Rimmer, 2010). Methylated mercury is known to cause adverse effects to
wildlife and aquatic organisms. Methylmercury can have neurotoxic, immunotoxic, and developmental effects on fish, birds, and mammals; top
consumers may be at elevated risk (Weir, 2010). Methylmercury is synthesized from inorganic mercury (Hg II) by aquatic bacteria at oxic/anoxic
boundaries such as sediment–water interface of lakes and rivers (Hurley JP, 1995). The degree to which an aquatic system is impacted by
methylmercury contamination is a function of a number of factors, including the rate of supply of atmospherically derived Hg (II), the net rate of
mercury methylation by aquatic, the efficiency of transport and

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