Psychology, Trait Theory And The Study Of Human...

Psychology, Trait Theory And The Study Of Human...
In psychology, trait theory (also called dispositional theory) is an approach to the study of human
personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be
defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion.[1] According to this perspective,
traits are relatively stable over time, differ across individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing
whereas others are shy), and influence behavior. Traits are in contrast to states which are more
transitory dispositions. In some theories and systems, traits are something a person either has or
does not have, but in many others traits are dimensions such as extraversion vs. introversion, with
each person rating somewhere along this spectrum. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Comparing EPQ and
Big Five 2.1 Testing methodology, and factors 2.2 Lower–order factors 2.3 Causality 3 List of
personality traits 4 See also 5 References History[edit] Gordon Allport was an early pioneer in the
study of traits, which he also referred to as dispositions. In his approach, "cardinal" traits are those
that dominate and shape a person 's behavior; their ruling passions/obsessions, such as a need for
money, fame etc. By contrast, "central" traits such as honesty are characteristics found in some
degree in every person – and finally "secondary" traits are those seen only in certain circumstances
(such as particular likes or dislikes that a very close friend may know), which are included to
provide a complete
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Theories Of Personality Theory
Theories of Personality–Dispositional and Evolutionary or Biological Personality Your Name
Institution Theories of Personality– Dispositional and Evolutionary or Biological Personality
Scientists believe that personality is often a huge factor that determines the choices that we make in
daily lives. Personality is not unique to humans, animals also have distinct personalities; any pet
owner will agree. The question that we are first inclined to ask is "what is personality? Why do we
need it?" The answer to the first question is fairly simple; according to Feist & Rosenberg (2009), "
personality is a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both
consistency and individuality to a person's behaviour". There are two approaches as far as
personality theories are concerned, viz. dispositional theory and biological or trait–based theories.
These theories are constitute of many other smaller theories. The primary theorists discussed in the
following sections are Eysenck, Alloport, Tupes, Goldberg and Christal. Dispositional Personality
theory Dispositional personality theory is a combination of theories with a central theme; all of them
attribute personality to innate attributes of an individual. According to the dispositional ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
in his book "Dimensions of Personality" Eysenck (1947) proposed a three factor personality model.
Other proponents of the trait based model of personality was Allport, (1961) who divided
personality into cardinal traits, central traits and secondary traits. According to Allport, the cardinal
traits are most important as an individual's main life choices are determined by these traits. The
Central traits determine the rules for daily interactions and most people have five to ten central
traits. Finally, the secondary traits are occasional attributes that are displayed only under special

To what extend personality predicts employee performance?
4). Discussed below are different researchers' arguments and explanations on how personality
predicts employee performance. This essay will explore both negative and positive ways in which
personality can predict the performance, as well as explaining what personality is. Past research has
"demonstrated that personality constructs are associated with work performance, with some traits
like conscientiousness predicting success around jobs. Other linked with specific occupations e.g.
extraversion correlates with success in sales and management as well as training performance
supporting", (Barrick et al., 2002, 87: p.43). Different people describe the word 'personality'
differently. Martin et al. (2010,p.610) describes personality as a ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Out of the five, consciousness has the highest positive link with high levels of job knowledge and
performance across a range of occupations. Bentall (cited in Mullins and Christy, 2013 p.139)
"suspects that most people will have a pretty clear idea of where they would like to find themselves
on the dimensions of neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness".
"The relationship between personality and work performance is questioned by Roberson, who
suggests that the only two of five dimensions linked consistently with high levels of performance
are conscientiousness and emotional stability" Supporting evidence appears in a study by Robertson
(cited in Mullins and Christy, 2013, p.139). Luthans and Youssef support the big five by reporting
that the personality traits are found to be related strongly to performance, individual –level
outcomes (such as happiness and physical and psychological health spiritually and identity.),
interpersonal–level outcomes (such as a quality of relationship with peers, family and romance),
social–level outcomes (such as occupational choice, satisfaction etc.) (Cited in Mullins and Christy
(2013, p.139). Hans Eysenck believed personality is largely inherited and we are born with differing
psychological tendencies. He classified "two major individual differences: (Extraversion &
introversion) and (emotional instability & emotional stability). His aim was to produce unbiased

Research Paper On Eysenck
Hans J. Eysenck On March 4, 1916, Hans J. Eysenck was born in Berlin, Germany. At first, an
ignorant to the world of psychology, Eysenck, encouraged by friends and family embarked on the
journey and received his Ph.D. in 1940 at the age of 24. Thereafter, Eysenck invested his time in
researching the genetic influences on psychology through which the five primary factors of
characteristics emerge.
In order to understand personality, Eysenck studied all forces of biology, historical typologies,
learning theory and factor analysis. Since Eysenck believed that genetics is the source of
personalities, he defined personality as "a more or less stable and enduring organization of a
person's character, temperament, intellect and physique which determines his unique adjustment to
the environment." Although he was a behaviorist, who believed that one can only study a response,
he did believe that internal sources trigger the responses. Famously, he searched to identify the
genetic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The five, commonly referred by the acronym OCEAN, categorize traits to determine where one falls
on the factors of openness, conscientious, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Original
descriptions of these factors stem from the terms used to describe them; whereas, the sophisticated
methods use the factor analysis to cluster traits and form the factor. Additionally, questionnaires and
ratings, such as the NEO–PI–R test, further assist in deciphering the Big Five. Last, much evidence
proves that inheritance of traits strongly impacts the Big Five theory. This is very visible on tests
conducted on identical twins whose traits are similar due to shared genes. Of course, environmental
impacts are also very active in affecting the Big Five, do different genetic traits react differently to
identical environmental

Cattell Sixteen Personality Factor Model
The investigation of primary traits lead to the basic definition of individual personality differences.
These particular primary traits are more influential in predictability and understanding the
complexity of human behaviour. The study lead to the foundation of R. Cattell's Sixteen Personality
Factor Model (16PF). The Sixteen Personality Factors Test has 160 questions in total, 10 questions
relating to each personality factor. The aims of 16PF is to measure personality based upon sixteen
source traits summarizes the surface traits as descriptors in connection to source traits within a high
and low range. Cattell ranked the traits in a hierarchy of importance to the ability of predicting
human behaviour. Hence, R. Cattell. (1933, 1946) cited in Cattell & Mead (2008) stated that the
16PF Questionnaire is a multi–level measure of personality established on the ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The most recognizable criticism of Cattell's Sixteen Personality Factor Model is that regardless of
numerous efforts the theory has never been completely reproduced. According to Howarth and
Brown's (1971) founding's, there was ten factors that were unsuccessful to relate to characteristics
presented in the 16PF model. Researchers stated that the model does not measure the factors at the
primary level as it supposed to (Fehriinger, 2004). Additionally, Sell et al. (1970) and Eysenck and
Eysenck (1969) as well failed to confirm primary level of the 16PF (Schuerger, Zarrella, & Hotz,
1989 cited in Fehriinger, 2004). Furthermore, there is an assumption that during Cattell's
investigation certain error arise as, all the calculations were done manually causing skewed data and
consequently the incapability to replicate the structure of the research. Additionally, it would appear
that primary factors are not constant to procedure a foundation for the model (Cooper. &

Depression : The Relationship Between Humor And Depression
Synopsis:
Depression is a common illness in the world. It is on the rise globally even more. This figure is even
higher in some populations like college students. Many researches have been done on this topic.
Another side which did not get much light of the research is the relationship between humor and
depression. Humor plays an important role in mental health filed as a coping mechanism. Different
personality variables seem to be factors associated with depression. From here comes the need for a
research focusing on the identification of personality variables and coping strategies which may
offer further clarifying factors associated with depression. The present research is to study the
relationship among different personalities and coping humor which may lead to identified associated
depression. An online website of the questionnaires will be created for data collection using three
scales combined: coping humor scale (CHS), Zung depression scale, Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire (EPQ). On a population of 380 college students participants from King Faisal
University and Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University. After conducting the research the data will
be collected, analyzed and processed in tables using the appropriate statistical measurements, in
return the results will be given and concluded.
Abbreviations and Acronyms:
Coping humor scale (CHS), Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ).
Key words:
Depression, humor, personality.
Introduction
More than 300

The Five Factor Model Of Personality
The five–factor model (FFM) is a contemporary construct describing personality. It incorporates
five traits – openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism also referred
to as OCEAN. Within each dimension, there are specific personality attributes, for example,
openness includes subcategories of feelings and actions. The FFM was influenced by Cattell's 16–
factor model (1957) and shares traits with many other personality theories such as Eysenck's PEN
model. There has been an ongoing debate discussing how many factors appropriately represent the
brain structure of personality, suggestions have varied from 2–7, recently Almagor et al. (1995)
advocated that a 7–factor model unfolds when evaluative traits are involved. Costa & Mcrae (1992)
claim that the FFM is the best theory of personality, however, the model has received much
criticism. Through examining different aspects of the model its credibility can be explored.
Universality is the core basis of a credible theory, studies have been found to replicate the five
factors of personality repeatedly. However, this evidence has been obtained purely from replications
involving urban and literate populations. Gurven et al. (2013) examined the universality of the
theory further by obtaining a sample consisting of 632 Tsimane forager horticultural inhabitants of
Bolivia. The sample was, therefore, illiterate and from a native society – an area of study not
previously conducted for the FFM. The

Personality Analysis : Personality And Personality
Personality Analysis
Michelle Jose
Argosy University
June 15, 2015 Personality Analysis Personality is the dynamic organization of characteristics that
blend or make a person unique and though in his or her appearance or reasoning. (Weinberg &
Gould, 1999). According to Eysenck 1966, when he was working in a hospital based in London he
was exposed to many different patients. Eysenck's work led him to develop a very important and
well known model of personality in the psychology world. His model on personality theory was the
result of culmination of answers to questionnaires on personality styles and statistics that he
identified specific parameters to measure them and use in the theory. He used three categories of
personality traits and these were; extraversion, psychoticism, and neuroticism. In 1940 Eysenck was
doing work at the Audley psychiatric hospital in London while developing his theory. His job at the
hospital was to make an initial assessment of each person admitted to the facility prior to being
diagnosed by a psychiatrist. This position at the hospital led him to track and write many questions
pertaining to behavior and personality. The questions were later applied to more than 700 soldiers
who were being treated for neurotic disorders at Maudsley hospital (Eysenck, 1966). From this
questionnaire and research Eysenck drew conclusions that the soldiers' answers correlated with one
another, suggesting that

The Biological Basis Of Personality Approach
This essay will give a description of Personality before critically analysing the biological basis of
personality approach. The biological basis approach tries to account for the mechanisms between
genes and personality by looking at various different brain structures whilst the biochemical
approach looks at the impact of hormones and neurotransmitters. The majority of our understanding
of personality from a biological perspective focuses on the three main behavioural systems; the
reward system, the motivation system and the punishment system. Within this essay I will be
discussing the three main theories that have come from these ideas, Eyenck's three–factor model,
Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) and Cloningers model of personality. Human DNA is
composed of roughly 30,000 genes composed of around 3 million base pairs and 99% of these are
universally identical for everyone meaning they cannot be the source of personality differences in
people. This suggests that the remaining genes are genetic mutations or polymorphisms, which have
an influence on personality, and the biological approach uses three main methods to try and
determine what % of individual differences in a trait can be attributed to genes and what % is a
response to the environment. Family studies are a commonly used method as they correlate the
degree of genetic overlap between family members with the degree of similarity in personality traits.
In personality research they are generally used to

Nature Vs Nurture Personality Research
Is your personality nature or nurture? Personality is the sum of characteristics which make an
individual unique. An ongoing debate about personality is whether it is personality is inherited and
developed through the environment we live in. There are numerous theories suggested to support
both sides of the debate. The trait theory believes personality is innate and in our genes; therefore
supports the nature and physiological approach to personality. This theoretical approach states that
characteristics are stable and enduring, which enable behaviour to be predicted. Psychologists
believe everyone consists of these traits, although to various degrees. Trait theory emphasises
persons response and not the situation they are in. there are 2 major ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Social learning theory involves psychologist Bandura who believes we learn our behaviour as a
result of observing behaviour from models and reinforcement. The developed of vicarious
conditioning occurs which states that emotional responses occur through observational; an example
could include learning to become aggressive after a valid referee decision has gone against the
player by watching other players on the pitch do the same. Bandura proposed 4 main stages involves
in observational learning. The first stage involves attention, this could involve watching a tennis
players' stance and bouncing the ball before they serve. The next stage is retention, which consists of
the viewer remembering that the tennis player closes their eyes and looks relaxed and confident and
therefore associated this with winning. Then, motor reproduction occurs, where the individual
imitates the behaviour. Finally, motivational response occurs; this consists of, the individual
repeating the same behaviour if he wins a game and feels more confident after proceeding to do the
behaviour. The social learning theory consist of various drawbacks, of which include, it is unreliable
to predict behaviour. In addition specific behaviour may occur in a specific situation but appear
differently in another environment. For example, a player may be aggressive and outgoing in
football, due to the nature of the game and the role he players; although may be quiet and timid off
the pitch. A further criticism is that it is reductionist and ignores the possibility of the trait

The Test Of The Rorschach Test
The Rorschach Test is a projective test designed by Hermann Rorschach using ambiguous images.
These images are created using randomly placed ink on a white surface, folding it, and creating a
mirror image on the other side. What you see is a projection of your personality and inner dynamics.
By analyzing what one interprets, you should be able to identify their feelings. Inkblots were first
normed by asking fifty people what they see and determining what the five most common images
were. One person's data, after the inkblots were normed, was further analyzed using an abbreviated
Rorschach scoring sheet. The first inkblot was normed and the top five responses were birds, bugs,
body parts, a mask, and a fountain. A subject was chosen and questioned regarding the abbreviated
scoring sheet. On the first inkblot, she saw two bears playing the violin. In reference to its location,
she used only a part of the inkblot commonly used by subjects. The developmental level was an
ordinary response in which a single area is selected and adequately articulated without gross
distortions. Her determinants were _______. She did not use organizational activity because the
subject did not integrate two or more areas into a meaningful relationship, instead she focused on
one small portion. This was not one of the popular responses and was an unusual verbalization. The
second inkblot was normed and the top five responses were two people with hats, two people
holding hands, animals, body parts,

The Relationship Between Personality And Sports And Exercise
Considerable amounts of research have been carried out on the relationship between personality and
sport and exercise. A psychologist known as Eysenck introduced the Personality Theory in which he
believed personality traits to have a 'biological basis' (Eysenck, H.J 1987). In addition, he also
believed personality could be influenced by external factors such as the environment. Eysenck has
indicated that there are, at least, three major dimensions of personality variation in the general
human population, in which people fall somewhere in between. (Eysenck 1979, 1982; Lynn and
Martin 1995). He identified these three main traits as Extroversion–introversion (E), Neuroticism–
stability (N) and finally Psychoticism–superego (P). It has been argued that personality type and
individual differences influence ones view and approach to, sport and exercise. (Eysenck 1979,
1982; Lynn and Martin 1995). There are many advantages and disadvantages of the different levels
of these three main traits in different sporting activities. In Eysenck's personality theory,
extroversion is described through characteristics such as outgoing, sociable, optimistic and active. In
comparison to this, introverts tend to be shy, reserved individuals who are typically careful and
unsociable. (Gorczynski, 2014). According to Eysenck (Eysenck and Eysenck 1985) individual
differences in extraversion are based upon variations in cortical arousal (the speed and amount of the
brain 's activity), which has been

Measuring Personality Traits with Eysenck Personality...
Targeted population, creator and history of assessment
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) test which is a third personality test created by Hans
Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck at 1975 (Fiest&Fiest, 2008). Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) was born in
Germany on March 4, 1916. Due to the persecution of jews he fled to England at the age of 18 and
here he became a famous psychiatrist. The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire built on the basic and
successive improvement of Maudsley Personality Inventory and Eysenck Personality Inventory
which included extraversion (E) scale, nuerocitism (N) scale, and psychoticism (p) scale. The EPQ
is a self–reported questionnaire. Basically, EPQ can use to test every people because it possess adult
and junior version to measures the personality traits of adult and children and also also used for
research purposes in a large population such as teenagers attending school. Moreover, EPQ can be
involved in larger studies aiming to measure, for instance; drug addiction, danger behaviour (Anton,
Oscar & Luis, 2002).
TEXT BOOK
Reliability and Validity
Since the development of Eyesnckpersonality theory, numerous measures were developedto assess
the varioustraits of personality. However, one of the outcomeof this process has been a progressive
increase in their length. This increase in length can be accounted for by the introduction of an
additional dimension of personality within Eyesnck's scheme (Eyesnck&Eyesnck, 1976) and by the
psychometric principle that

Trait Theory
Trait theory – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 1 of 8 Trait theory From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia Trait theory in psychology, is an approach to the study of human personality. Trait
theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual
patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion.[1] According to this perspective, traits are relatively
stable over time, differ across individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing whereas others are shy),
and influence behavior. Gordon Allport was an early pioneer in the study of traits, which he
sometimes referred to as dispositions. In his approach, central traits are basic to an individual 's
personality, whereas secondary traits are more ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The five factor model in particular has been criticized for losing the orthogonal structure between
factors.[8][9] Hans Eysenck has argued that fewer factors are superior to a larger number of partly
related ones.[10] Although these two approaches are comparable because of the use of factor
analysis to construct hierarchical taxonomies, they differ in the organization and number of factors.
Whatever the causes, however, psychoticism marks the two approaches apart, as the five factor
model contains no such trait. Moreover, psychoticism, unlike any of the other factors in either
approach, does not fit a normal distribution curve. Indeed, scores are rarely high, thus skewing a
normal distribution.[11] However, when they are high, there is considerable overlap with psychiatric
conditions such as antisocial and schizoid personality disorders. Similarly, high scorers on
neuroticism are more susceptible to sleep and psychosomatic disorders.[12] Five factor approaches
can also predict future mental disorders.[13][14] Lower–order factors There are two higher–order
factors that both taxonomies clearly share: extraversion and neuroticism. Both approaches broadly
accept that extraversion is associated with sociability and positive affect, whereas neuroticism is
associated with emotional instability and negative affect. [11] Many lower–order factors, or

Drunk Driving Patterns
findings. This could potentially reinforce even more the idea that drinking patterns and driving
patterns correlate with drunk driving, which could lead us to figuring out ways to solve the issue.
Finally, the last study we looked at was conducted in Norway, where drinking while intoxicated is
also seen as a very serious crime. Inger Synnøve Moan, Thor Norström, and Elisabet E. Storvoll
composed an article called Alcohol Use and Drunk Driving: The Modifying Effect of Impulsivity
that describes the study. Researchers wanted to examine factors that contribute to drunk driving,
such as frequency of alcohol use and impulsivity. They formed a hypothesis that there would be a
correlation between frequency of alcohol use and drunk driving, and that ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Specifically, we want to figure out if there is some sort of correlation between drinking patterns and
driving patterns of individuals, and drunk driving. Our hypothesis is that more hazardous behaviors
amongst drinking and driving patterns will indicate a higher likelihood of an individual driving
while intoxicated. With drinking, we believe patterns such as drinking more frequently and
consuming more alcohol in one sitting will contribute to a greater chance of driving under the
influence. For driving patterns, we believe riskier behaviors such as speeding, texting while driving,
driving without a seatbelt, running stop signs/red lights, and a history of being pulled over, as well
as a history of having to take a sobriety test, will contribute to a higher rate of individuals who have
driven a vehicle while under the influence of alcohol. By conducting our study and giving out
questionnaires to a sample of about 600 individuals, our data will help us determine what types of
patterns lead up to intoxicated driving. When finding out some of the causes, we can then try to
figure out ways that will be productive in reducing the amount of intoxicated drivers there are on the
road, and what action should be taken to more strongly enforce the laws against drunk

Why Should Athletes Be Paid?
Gracie was in the final round of her gymnastics competition. The judges were announcing the first
place winner now. "...... in second place. And last but not least, in first place..... Gracie!!" Gracie
jumped in the air as her ponytail began flopping on her head. She ran up to get her trophy. After all
this, she looked around and noticed that second place, third place, fourth place, fifth place, all the
way down to last place were all awarded trophies that all looked exactly the same. Every detail... the
foot high structure with the stars at the top, the blue lettering spelling out "great job" in the middle,
the coloring, were ALL the same. Suddenly, she did not feel as much of a winner. She wondered
why the people who did not work hard, goofed around during practice, and fell more than once
during their routine got the same reward as she did... the one who worked hard everyday. The one
who took her preparation very seriously. The one who practiced for perfection each day. So, why
should inattentive people be rewarded with the same thing as the dedicated people? Why should
athletes work hard when they know that everyone will get a trophy anyway? Of course, there ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This means that kids are getting "wimpier". For example, on mensjournal.com C. Robert Cloninger
said "All that means is that if you constantly reward a kid, you spoil them, and you don't build a
capacity for them to be resilient to frustration," What Cloninger is trying to say is that after a kid
gets a trophy all of the time, they will not know how to cope with losing when they are in a higher
level sport. Also, they will get more upset and angry when they, for example, don't get a perfect
score on a test or quiz in school. Some may say that getting these trophies can help kids self esteem.
But, when they win too much they can feel like it is given to the and not try as hard. So, when
children get trophies all of the time it can make them

Annotated Bibliography: Character
Annotated Bibliography: Character Emptiness is always a daily question to each person walking on
the street. Human consciousness is the ultimate level among species: the capability of thinking about
the future in many scenes and real–life situations. Throughout various stages of education, one's
perspective grows wider; one proceeds to see things further, and the true size of one's value to the
world. The more knowledge is absorbed, the bigger this capability grows. Meanwhile, the present
does not change: social class, environment, place, current circumstance, and rules. With the limited
ability to barely change the present, one's value varies and degrades. Because of that, the mental safe
zone, where a perfect world is built in one's mind, is developed as an instinct to prevent the progress
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Firstly, the sources listed will help me to have some insights about how morals are gradually taken
away, and how self–centeredness becomes the main character that is developed in the next
generation. Second, the sources will help me see how character and personalities are related each
other; and the changes of one can lead to the changes of the other. Lastly, the sources will be useful
in proving character educational programs are necessary.
1. Brooks, David. "Character in the Selfie Age." The Importance of Character, Royal Society for the
encouragement of Arts, 19 June, 2015, London. Guest

Psychosocial Theories in Criminal Justice
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORIES in the APPLICATION of CRIMINAL JUSTICE Mark P. Robertson
Deviant Behavior Instructor Tomasina Cook EMPIRE STATE COLLEGE July 30, 2012 There are
several Psychosocial Theories pertaining to human behavior. The relation of some of these theories
can be directly applied to the Criminal Justice field. Theories focus on why some behavior develops,
when and where the development begins, who is affected by it and may be particularly more
susceptible, what signs or behaviors to look for, and what may be done to prevent it. Psychologist
Terrie Moffitt proposed her Developmental Theory identifying two developmental 'paths' or
'patterns' in which an individual may exhibit. Moffitt claims that criminal behavior can ... Show
This is especially true when it involves young people. Young people/persons are quite easily
influenced, and impressionable. It is a very critical and important time in one's life, trapped
somewhere between childhood and adulthood. It is a period of extreme change, extreme choices,
and big decisions. Lack of one's own identity, confusion, and the need and desire to belong, or to 'fit
in' somewhere, can and often does provoke irrational thought. The inability or difficulty to become
accepted by one's peers gives way to potentially 'bad' choices. This can be especially difficult for
certain cultural, ethnic, and societal groups. For example, inner–city youth (regardless of race) who
grow up in areas with higher crime rates and/or criminal activity, or lower–income families (many
with only one parental figure) are by default, at higher risk of 'exposure' to criminal activity. They in
essence, have little or almost no chance of meeting or interacting with (or being influenced by)
someone from the suburbs, or the country (rural areas), where criminal activity is lower. These
inner–city youths are more frequently exposed to crime (it is sometimes all they see and know), and
without 'positive' influence, they are more susceptible to adopt an 'identity' relative and according to
what they experience on a regular basis. They believe that is the 'norm' and in turn, they

Essay on Theories of Personality
Introversion has the greatest chance of negatively affecting SLA. Students that are afraid of
embarrassing themselves by speaking incorrectly or by not being able to speak at all may try to
avoid opportunities that would otherwise aid their learning (Zhang, 2008). Since 1960, personality
has emerged as major field of specialization among doctoral candidates (Vance & Macphail, 1964).
Many investigations have been accomplished followed by literature on a variety of theories of
personality. The importance on individual differences and distinctiveness of the individual are the
most frequent features of the study of personality. There is a guarantee that each person's profile is
different from that of another person and thus, each person ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The study can merely be called systematic and scientific when it concerned unbiased observations
that are quantified so that systematic analyses can be performed (Allen, 1990). Dworkin and
Kihlstrom (1978) underlined that the prediction of behavior will be improved by the use of
personality tests. In line with this, many personality inventories with certain extent of reliability and
validity have been developed to aid in the study of personality.
There are essentially two forms of personality tests that can be found in the literature. One of it is
named projective test, allowing an extensive variety of freedom in making response, whereby the
test items are more unstructured, vague or open–ended. Example of this is the Rorscharch Technique
(1951). In the meantime another form of test is called the objective test. Objective tests are
extremely structured paper and pencil questionnaires such as true/false or multiple choices, each of
which can be scored with a key. Sidek personality Inventory is one case of an objective test. As
objective tests are highly structured and scientific, they are higher in validity and reliability
compared to projective tests.
Allport (1936) was the first one who considered the conception of traits as the origin of his theory of
personality. Nevertheless, different psychologists have developed different list of essential traits and
different measurement

Is The Theory Of Basis Data Scientific?
1. Is the theory's basis data scientific? The trait/biological approach is a little scientific. The data
used to establish the traits does not include a large and diverse sample. The theorists who did collect
data collected it from individuals whose personalities supported their theories. Raymond Cattell
collected three types of data: L–data (behavior in everyday situations), Q–data (self–reported
questionnaires), and OT–data (objective tests). With the data, Cattell ran a factor analysis and if the
data correlated, they would be clustered together to create a factor. The majority of the data he
collected is subjective. The five–factor model was developed by opening up the dictionary and
picking adjectives. The participants were asked to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The biological approach tried to supply the explanation. One explanation is temperament.
Hippocrates and Galen proposed there were four humors and temperaments responded to them
making up four personalities. Franz Joseph Gall theorized that temperaments existed physically in
our heads and he claimed he could identify people's temperaments by the bumps on their brains.
Ernst Kretchmer and William Sheldon believed temperaments were based on three body types:
pyknic (heavier, rounder); athletic (fit); and asthenic (thinner). Emil Kraepelin, who was born the
same year as Freud approached pathology as links in families. If we had given more recognition to
Kraepelin rather than Freud, we would be further in the field. Thomas and Chess identified three
different temperaments from parents reporting about their children: easy/well–adjusted,
difficult/undercontrolled, and slow–to–warm/inhibited. Strong relationships with how people were
identified as children and how they were measured as adults were found. Kegan through more
objective observations identified there were only two temperament styles: inhibited (more reactive)
and uninhibited (welcome to new people/things). The second explanation is genetics. Research done
on twin studies found that identical twins that were raised apart were more statistically similar to
each other. A meta–analysis was done that concluded that forty percent of variance in personality
can be attributed to genetics. The third explanation of

The Analysis of the Five Factor Model Essay examples
The Analysis of the Five Factor Model
In this essay, first the Five Factor Model (FFM) will be described. Secondly, psychologists for and
against the model will be looked at. Following this, the stability of traits will be looked at, both
longitudinal and cross situational. Finally, the application of the model within and outside
psychology will be evaluated to show support that the FFM provides a solid foundation for an
adequate personality psychology.
"The Five Factor Model provides a compelling framework for building personality measures that
seek to represent the domain of individual terms broadly and systematically" (Briggs, 1989 as cited
in McAdams. DP, 1992, p. 332). The FFM consists ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There is a lot of support for the FFM and its solid foundation for an adequate personality
psychology including consistency in results from different researchers using different methods, the
stability of the five factors and its application both within and outside of psychology.
Two psychologists that support the validity of the FFM are Eysenck and Cattell. Eysenck's PEN
model includes only three factors (extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism) but with a similar
hierarchal structure as the FFM. That is that individuals can rate from extremes on each factor. He
used the statistical measurement of factor analysis that identifies patterns and correlations of words,
once and then again resulting in what are known as the three superfactors. Eysenck also believed
that the basic factors of personality have a biological basis. For example, one hypothesis was that
introverts are characterised by higher levels of cortical arousal than extraverts (Eysenck, 1967 as
cited in Eysenck. HJ, 1981). EEG measures by Savage (cited in Eysenck. HJ, 1981), which are a
reliable and scientific method of research, confirmed this hypothesis. This supports psychologists
Costa and McCrae's Five Factor Theory that the five factors have dispositional tendencies and that
every individual's personality matures intrinsically around these five factors.
Psychologist Gordon

Personality Stability and Change in Trait Theories of...
The evaluation of personality stability and change across the life span is largely determined by
theoretical beliefs. While some scholars have a more deterministic viewpoint and consider human
personality as fairly predictable and stable over time (e.g. biogenetic determinism), other theorists
view personality as fluid and highly malleable (e.g. behaviorism). The intermediate stance assumes
a bidirectional relationship between heredity and environment, which allows for both consistency
and change in personality. Moreover, some theorists introduce a third element to a biosocial model –
the individual (e.g. transactional model of socialization). Evaluation of personality stability is
difficult, seeing lack of consensus on what ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Don Juan). Allport used an idiographic approach that emphasized uniqueness of individuals,
evaluating categories of values within a person, instead of across groups. This approach reduces
researchers' bias as the study is focused on investigation of traits presented in each individual, rather
than a theorized central trait (Burger, 2010). Allport was influential in conceptualizing of
personality, but his trait model is rather philosophical than scientific. Falsification of his hypothesis
and organization of psychological data under his theory is difficult, and, consequently, measurement
of personality stability or change is problematic. Contrary to Allport, personality analysis of
Eysenck was nomothetic in nature, with strong emphases on biological foundations of traits. To
construct and explain personality he used typical for the natural sciences approach that support
generalization. Through statistical evaluation Eysenck established two main bipolar dimensions of
personality, which he called supertraits – extraversion/introversion (E) and neuroticism/stability (N).
Later, he added another dimension, psychoticism/superego functioning (P), which maintained less
defined. According to Eysenck, psychological disorders are found at the extremes of personalities,
where neuroticism determines predisposition to anxiety, hysteria, depression, and obsessive–
compulsive tendencies. Psychoticism, per Eysenck,

Describe theories relating to personality and how they...
There are varying theories relating to personality, with each theory giving a different viewpoint on
how personality affects sporting performance. One of these theories is the Trait Theory (Eysenck)
which originally stated that there were only two personality types (introvert and extrovert) but over
time realised that this limited the theory and introduced two more personality traits (stable and
neurotic). Each one of these personality types has its own unique affect on a sports performance. An
introvert for example is seen to be shy and tends to choose a solo sport, and this sport is likely to be
one that contains small muscle movements such as darts. This personality trait would affect sporting
performance if the performer was ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This theory can lead to both positive and negative affects on a sports performance. For example a
sports performer who watches a more experienced player may copy the approach taken by the more
experienced player possibly leading to an eventual improvement in his or her own level of skill. This
can also be spun on its head though, if a performer is watching (football for example) and witnesses
a player successfully dive this might cause the performer to try and replicate this negative action
leading to a decline in performance. One final theory relating to personality is the interactionist
theory; this theory states that personality has three levels that interact to form an individual's
personality and is based on the work of Hollander (1967). This theory describes how a person's
typical responses change according to varying environmental situations, therefore meaning
behaviour becomes unpredictable. This theory also explains why a performers personality can
change depending on the situation they're placed in. When combined with Eysenck's trait theory this
becomes easier to explain how personality affects sports performance. An example of this would be
that a person in day to day life could be seen as introverted, but when they partake in sport their
traits can change and they can become and extrovert based on the situation they are place in e.g. a
football

Discuss Eysenck’s Theory of Criminal Personality – Refer...
The term 'personality' is generally used to refer to relatively stable characteristics of a person that
make their behaviour consistent across situations (but many other definitions are possible,
depending on the approach being taken). Hans Eysenck (1964) put forward a theory of criminal
behaviour based on a very influential theory of personality he had earlier devised. Although this
theory is usually referred to as a personality theory of offending, it is important to appreciate that
Eysenck's theory conceives of criminal behaviour as the outcome of interactions between processes
occurring at several different levels of explanation. Eysenck's theory suggests that crime arises from
certain personality traits, which are biological in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Finally, Zuckerman (1969) suggests that the environmental stimulation sought by individuals is not
necessarily related to extroversion. It may simply be as a result of boredom, which arises from
increased rather than decreased

Five Factor Model : The Five Aspects Of Personality
Moving on, there has been debate over whether the factors of personality in trait theory are too
parsimonious. H. J. Eysenck (1990) was a staunch advocate of having only three dimensions and
discussed the reasons why expanding the factors was unsuitable, which was mainly focussed on a
lack of knowledge and empirical evidence that there were more than three factors. However, Costa
and McCrae (1992) presented substantial evidence that a Five Factor model represented personality
more accurately. As with trait theory, factor analysis was employed to generate the five dimensions
of personality which creates issues as will be discussed below. Nevertheless, the Five Factor model
appears to be consistent across age, culture and gender (Costa and McCrae, 1992), provides stable
traits which are identified and observed universally (Costa and McCrae, 1992) and can be applied to
real–life situations (Costa and McCrae, 1992; Gardner et al, 2012, Straud et al, 2015,). Interestingly,
some researchers doubt that even five factors are not enough to determine personality and propose
that a sixth factor may be required, however there is disagreement over what exactly the sixth factor
should be (Jackson et al, 1996; Piedmont, 1999; Aston et al, 2010).
The Five Factor model has been used to aid companies wanting to streamline their recruitment
process to attract and retain employees who fit the 'culture' of the company (Gardner et al, 2012).
Some weaknesses of Gardner et al's (2012) study

Are Academics More Academic Than Extroverts?
Are introverts more academic than extroverts? Abstract 150 Introversion–extroversion was proposed
by Eysenck as a scale along which each individuals personalities vary, with most people gathering in
the centre of the scale as neither highly introverted or extroverted. As introverts are found to be
more shy than extroverts, and categorized as more likely to be found reading a book than at a party,
the hypothesis that introverts are more intelligent that extroverts was tested. Two questionnaires, one
to assess intelligence and one to assess their introversion–extroversion rating, were given to 60
participants from Nottingham Trent University. The results were found to be not significant,
showing that introversion is not a predictor for academic success. Introduction 270–405 (391)
LaPiere's 1934 study showed that attitudes do not always predict behaviour. LaPiere travelled
America with some of the Chinese population and visited hotels, restaurants, and other service
industries. Of these establishments 91% said that they would not accept Chinese guests, however
only 1 establishment refused them service on their travels. Ajzen (1991) developed a model called
the Theory of Planned Behaviour. He proposed that attitudes are not the only influences on
behavioural intentions. Ajzen's behavioural model identifies subjective norms, which are beliefs of
others, and control beliefs, which are beliefs that are already formed and therefore are the control for
future beliefs. However, one

Personal Differences : Sigmund Freud And Hans Eysenck
There are many psychologists that have created theories having great impacts on the field of
psychology. Two examples of psychologists that developed famous theories were Sigmund Freud
and Hans Eysenck. Hans Eysenck was a German born English physcologist who was known very
well in Great Britain from March 4th 1917 – September 4th 1997. Eysenck was interested in human
intelligence and personality traits and is known for his theories on both. He was also well known for
his knowledge and understanding of phycology (McLeod, 2014).
Hans Eysenck's most famous theory was a successful access to the public minds that that was used
in a day to day life in how a human thinks of the others personality. Eysenck's theory of 3
dimensions of personality ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They are also very are looked at as thoughtful and caring towards others (Edwards, 2017).
Sigismund Schlomo Freud, also known as Sigmund Freud, was born on May 6th, 1856 and died on
September 23rd, 1939. He was from Austria and a successful neurologist. He is best known as the
founder of psychoanalysis. Freud's argued that we have 3 levels of awareness. "Freud argued that
people have three levels of awareness: conscious (what we are aware of), preconscious (what we can
be aware of if we attend to is carefully) and unconscious (that about which we cannot be aware
except under exceptional circumstances)" (Furnham, 2017).
Freud also stated that personality has a built–in structure. Personalities have three different stages:
ID, ego, and superego. These 3 stages of personality are developed as you age throughout life. The
ID stage is developed at birth and is your instinct plus desire, meaning that you will do anything to
have it. The ego stage is developed in your first year of life and is the realistic part and can relate
back to ID stage. The last stage, which is superego, forms between the ages of 3 and 5 and is the
social aspect of things (Furnham, 2017).
There are quite a few differences between Freud and Eysenck's theories on personality. Freud's
theories are about how people see themselves and react to themselves. Eysenck's theory was on the
3 dimensions of personality, which oppose one another. Freud's

The Psychological Theories Of The Human Personality
The human Personality is an individual's distinctive behaviour, thoughts and emotions which work
in tandem to create a unique personality. This essay will analyse the operation of personality by
examining the three main psychological theories of; Carl Rogers, Sigmund Freud and Hans
Eysenck. These theories were initiated to gain an understanding of the 'mind' and how particular
personality traits come about. Each of these theories are distinguished by three theoretical
approaches, which are: Nomothetic; nomothetic approaches argue that personality is the outcome of
permanent characteristics displayed consistently, this is measured using experiments or testing. For
example, Eysenck is a 'type' theorists because he conducts research using a personality
questionnaire. Idiographic; Idiographic approaches argue that each individual has a complex/unique
personality. Therefore concerning themselves with the whole person rather than individual
characteristics. They believe investigating Individuals in personal, in–depth detail will achieve a
unique understanding of them, for example, phenomenological theorists like Rogers use clinical
case studies. Last is psychodynamic theories; which tends to be an amalgamation of both
nomothetic and idiographic approaches. Example being Freud's psychic apparatus shared amongst
all individuals (id, ego and superego), conversely each individual is unique in regards to the life
experiences which sequentially shapes their personality. This also ties

Implication of Schizotypy as a Personality Trait Essay
Implication of Schizotypy as a Personality Trait
Gruzelier (1996) suggest that "schizotypy consists mainly of impulsive non–conformity, social
anxiety, positive features such as unusual perceptions, and negative features such as introversions."
(Cited in Miller P, et al. 2002, p.179).
In this essay one would like to explore the definition given to 'schizotypy' and to give a brief
discussion on this concept and whether schizotypy is a single trait or whether there are more factors
to be considered, for it was conceptualized by Eysenck as a single personality trait named
psychoticism, however it was Claridge's work that suggested that this personality trait was much
more complex, and that such ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
146). It was also suggested by Cooper that the concept of schizotypy, therefore, is said to have much
in common with Eysenck's idea of psychoticism. (Psychoticism is one of the three traits used by the
psychologist Hans Eysenck in his P–E–N model (psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism)
model of personality.
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Mental_illness_diagnosis_by_DSM_and_ISCDRHP – 20k ) Both
these traits are thought to predict the risk of developing schizophrenia, but researchers such as
Claridge have tried to predetermine all the main symptoms of schizophrenia from the clinical to the
non–clinical population. It was said that Eysenck focused more on impulsive, sensation seeking,
cruel and solitary behaviors, who only mildly referred to the perceptual distortions or cognitive and
attention problems. Therefore he concluded that even if the traits have some similarities, they are
unlikely to be identical. (Cooper, 2002, pp. 146–7).
To determine whether schizotypy is a single trait can be complicated in the fact that if a personality
disorder description should include, at minimum, criteria relevant
To a person's characteristic patterns e.g. 1) thought, 2) affectivity,
3) motivation, and 4) behavior, the question that arisen to Westen, D., and Shedler, J. when
researching the classification of personality disorders, is "how to develop a classification system for

Explain Eysenck's Approach to Understanding Personality....
Before examining Eysencks approach to understanding personality, we need to define what
personality is. Dictionary definition (1) Personality – the sum of all the behavioral and mental
characteristics by means of which an individual is recognised as being unique. What is meant by
personality? It is the inner quality of a person, the sum of their life experiences, the way the
environment affects a persons' outlook and a conscious choice. Personality is not better or worse
than any other person's. Scientifically, we all have a personality and each on is different. Definitions
of personality conventionally excludes physical differences such as height or strength, although
these obviously affect personality. Eysencks personality ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
NEUROTIC generally are better at performing arts PSYCHOTICS are high in independence, they
are ruthless, very original and creative, they are not a good family man / woman / loyal friend. If
coupled with stability it is very advantageous, if coupled with instability it is disastrous. Research
into Eysencks dimensions comes in the form of questionnaires which merely ask people details
about themselves, hobbies and preferences which can then be scored objectively. Therefore they
share some similarities with the measurement techniques of other psychologists. Eysenck presented
large samples of people with questions about themselves, he then factor analysed their responses to
find certain personality attributes which are found together. For example, a sociable person tends to
be talkative, impulsive and lively these all arise from an underlying personality trait. For the
presentation, Katie produced a shortened version of Eysencks Personality Inventory (EPI), which
she explained to the class. (See attached questionnaire) There are a numerous questions each relating
to the N and E score. Your response to each question dictates whether you get a mark or not. There
are no right or wrong answers as the questionnaires are purely subjective. One of the biggest
problems with personality measurement is that we have to assume that people are being honest
when they answer the questions about themselves. Form B on the questionnaire is not objective
therefore when

Trait Theory : Hans Eysenck's Influence On Personality
Personality remains an active area within Psychology, specifically the investigation of individual
differences. Currently, there does not appear to be a consensus on a definition of personality,
however it is generally agreed that personality consists of characteristics which are enduring, stable
and important for distinguishing individuals (Cervone and Little, 2017). Individual differences
approaches can be explained as recognising and understanding how and why individuals differ
(Cooper, 2010). In the study of personality and individual differences, it becomes apparent that an
interaction is required between both the nomothetic approach, which establishes 'general' principles
that can be applied to everyone, and the idiographic approach, which identifies the uniqueness of
individuals (Allport, 1937). Hans Eysenck created trait theory in response to theories which
focussed too much on the idiographic approach as he felt that if a theory is to fully describe and
explain personality, it must have a wide scope which encourages empirical testing (H. J. Eysenck,
1991). This essay aims to briefly summarise trait theory followed by a critical analysis exploring
how sufficient it is in describing, measuring and explaining personality. Trait theory still provokes
debate today, and the focus of the evaluation will remain on: the extent of a biological influence on
personality and whether there is a significant role for the environment; the brevity of the dimensions
of personality and

What I Would Use As The Icebreaker Slide
Slide 1 This is what I would use as the icebreaker slide. I would use this slide to open the discussion
on what the group thinks the differences between developmental and environmental factors were, as
well as a brief discussion on what the group thinks each topic is about. This is meant to be a group
discussion to get the group comfortable with the training class and get the brain flowing. The rest of
the slides will go into detail on the topics. Slide 2 Twin Studies ENVIRONMENT: Environment can
be shared or non–shared in twin studies. When looking at the study, the environment is an important
factor in the results. A shared environment is when the twins are raised in the same home by their
biological parents. They attend the same school ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
FAMILY CRIMINAL HISTORY: Information collected through twin studies show evidence that
heredity is definitely a factor in criminal behavior. However, environment is an important as well. A
study called Twins' Early Development Study (TEDS) is a longitudinal twin study that is being
closely watched. The study group consists of twins born between 1994 – 1996 in Wales and
England. This study is researching problems in language development, cognition, and academics in
early childhood and through adolescence. There have been over 13,000 sets of twins that remain in
this study. This study has shown that environment has a considerable amount of influence over
behavior problems and/or disorders (autism spectrum disorder, ADHD). However, antisocial
disorder shows more hereditability traits. The callous–unemotional personality is very strongly
inherited. Twin Study of Child and Adolescent Development (TCHAD), is another longitudinal twin
study. This study used the Swedish Twin Registry to collect a study group of 1,226 twins. The study
used a behavioral scale to measure the aggression in 8 – 9 year olds, reported by their parents. The 8
years later they asked the children to report on their aggression. This study found that genetics play
a large role in the early onset of aggression in children, yet seems to play a smaller role in the
development of delinquent behavior in male adolescents. Adoption Studies: There

Why Personality Test Is Important?
Theme Paper #1 I recently took a similar test through my employment to help give our director a
better idea of the type of employees she had working in her department and how to use each one of
skills set to best of the company. I was expecting to get the similar results however I did not get
similar results. Different results from different test can be caused by participant error due to overall
mood when taking the test. I know that during my coursework my thought patterns have changed
which was reflected in the different results of the test. People are complex beings who can change at
will or not change depending on how they approach a situations. With therapy people can change
how they react to situations. I think that personality test are important because they give insight into
a person and crate a place to discuss the finding. I received personality type of guardian which I can
see how it fits me as the person I am right now. If I were working with a client who was struggling
with what they should do with their career then I would have them take a personality test to help
give them idea of what they might good at. The Keirsey test does not that long to complete. I believe
that many test can be too long which lose a person interest and can decrease how accurate a test is.
While doing more research on the Keirsey test an article but Miles (2006) pointed out that Keirsey
makes no bones about temperament being inborn. He point out that personality types dictate how

Type A Behavior Analysis
In the textbook the authors talk about the fact that differences in an individual's personality can be
partially attributed to genetics and also that these differences in emotions and behavior can often be
noticed in early childhood, through a pathway called temperament (Cervone & Pervin, 2013). There
are two characteristics of temperament however, that have been researched and studied the most,
and those two characteristics are inhibited behavior and fear reactions. As may be obvious, as is in
fact obvious in my family, people react differently in their emotions and behavior to new situations
such as moving out of a parent's house or being around groups of people they don't know, and these
differences in reaction can be attributed to genes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Among neurotic non–smokers however a family history of coronary heart disease was hypothesized
to be related to a neurotic's more withdrawn personality type (Eysenck & Fulker, 1983). The study
has proposed that of all the factors on the EPQ test (neuroticism, extraversion, psychoticism and
conformity) extraversion and neuroticism play the biggest role in the construction of a Type A
personality, and thus propose a genetic relation between personality and coronary heart disease that
can be altered by smoking habits. This study goes to show that Type A behavior is not clearly
defined, as can be seen in the differences between extraversion and neuroticism. It is also clear that
Type A behavior can be further magnified within the four factors (Tenseness, ambition, activity and
unrepressed) within the categories neuroticism and

Psychological Perspectives On Studying Juvenile...
This essay will compare and contrast some psychological and sociological approaches to studying
juvenile delinquency and disorder behaviour. The question is what makes people behave disorderly.
Youth disorderly behaviours are studied using different approaches including psychological and
sociological approaches. Both psychological and sociological approaches to studying juvenile
delinquency are necessary. This essay starts with outlining and defining disorderly behaviour and
juvenile delinquency. Then, it will look at the work of Eysenck, the Cambridge Study of Delinquent
Development research which was a longitude study and the Integrated Cognitive Antisocial
Potential theory by Farrington, all fit in psychological approach; studying the connection between
personality and disorder. It will then look at Sociological approach by looking at the work of
Howard Becker, Stan Cohen and Stuart Hall. This essay will be analysing and comparing their
theories and separating the differences and noting the similarities in their ideas. This essay will
provide evidence for each theory. It will then conclude by specifying significant similarities and
differences in the light of the evidence presented. Disorderly behaviour is any behaviour that does
not conform to generally accepted social or cultural norms and expectations. (Havard and Clarke,
2014, p. 249). Disorderly behaviour in young people occurs when a youth's behaviour is in violation
of criminal law, juvenile status offences and

Weaknesses Of The Trait Theory: Strength And Approaches
As mentioned above, both theories explain personality in two different ways. However, both
theories resent strengths and weaknesses in their approaches.
The trait theory was elaborated years earlier, instead of the personal construct theory; indeed, a
strength in the Eysenck and Ranchman's (1964) approach was more influential and it has been tested
widely, conversely to Kelly's (1995) approach that was elaborated later and had less impact on the
field. However, nowadays the PCT have a strong influence on modern therapy (e.g. CBT).
Despite this, personal construct theory was criticised for the lack of the possibility to compare and
generalised the findings across the wider population, which instead seems to be a strength of trait
theory.
The use of Eysenck personality inventory allowed the comparison between a large group of
individuals, useful for organisations that need to identify trends in certain populations. E.g.
questionnaires were used in the US to seek out left wing sympathisers.
However, Richard (2002) criticised the methods used by the trait theory concerning how a
questionnaire can measure personality and how the findings can be interpreted. Moreover, Richard
(2002) argued about the trait elaborated after the Second World War, e.g. the 'authoritarian ... Show
reliable, honest and constant suggesting endurability and comparisons. Having their foundation in
everyday language uses is the features that build different traits. Theorists claim that the fact that we
use trait terms in daily life indicates their utility; they employed a 'psycholexical approach' that
begins with familiar terms and looked at how people rate others on trait dimensions. Language could
be used for assessing suitability for employment by occupational psychologists to decide which
individuals are best suited to particular employment (Butt,

Costa And Mccrae 's Five Factor Theory Of Personality And...
Both Costa and McCrae's Five Factor theory of personality and Eysenck's PEN theory have been the
subject of significant research in an effort to better understand human personality. This paper
focuses on two opposing theories: Costa and McCrae's Five Factor model, a lexically–based theory
with five factors, and Eysenck's PEN model, a biologically–based theory with three core traits of
personality.
Utilizing factor analysis, Raymond Cattell (1946) recognized 16 personality factors (16pf). Cattell
believed each individual exhibits 16 distinctive personality traits, each person embodying different
traits; some might be considered high in certain attributes while deemed low in others. Fellow
scientists and associates criticized Cattell 's 16pf questionnaire, and postulated that 16 personality
factors were too many to effectively conduct studies on human personality. Different reactions came
about because of the failure to reproduce Cattell 's work. Numerous researchers, for example, Paul
Barrett and Paul Kline were not able reproduce Cattell 's 16pf questionnaire (Barrett and Kline,
1982). Nevertheless, in questioning the validity of Cattell 's work and expanding on years of
research examining personality traits, researchers were able to distinguish five distinct personality
factors or characteristics. Cattell 's work demonstrated a methodological approach to theory
development through the use of factor analysis, a relatively new approach to psychological research
(Sinha &

Strengths And Weaknesses Of Personality Analysis
One of the aims of Social psychologists is to research and explain individual differences in
behaviour. Theories of personality were developed between different but related strands such as
clinical, psychometric and experimental tradition; they looked at people behaviour to find out why
individuals act and respond to stimuli differently in common situations (Butt, 2012). Behaviour,
emotion and thought are the qualities that characterise each individual while he interacts with the
social environment, i.e. the definition of what is understood by personality. As cited by Butt (2012)
'traits are relatively enduring ways in which an individual differs from another' (Butt, 2012 p.46).
Two different approaches have their theory about personality: trait theory by Eysenck (1965) which
has origins from the psychometric tradition of measurement based on the experimental approach and
Kelly's (1995) personal construct ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This essay is going to discuss the two theories highlighting the strengths and weakness for both
approaches. Trait theory was developed from the psychometric tradition by Eysenck and Ranchman
(1964) that used variables such as cognitive ability and IQ to assess individual differences; however,
criticism argued that IQ tests would favour only white middle class. Eysenck (1965) adopted a
nomothetic approach, which classifies personality dimensions, to measure and describe the
individual differences of personality. In Eysenck's and Ranchman (1964) approach, the science of
personality was a means of clarifying psychiatric classification. He believed that individual's
behaviour, i.e. personality, is influenced by biological characteristics: causal factors at a neurological
level can influence individual's temperament and behaviour. However, he recognised that other
features such as individual's past

Comparing Eysenck 's Theory Of Personality And Costa And...
Guilford (1959) defines personality traits as being 'any distinguishable, relatively enduring way in
which one individual varies from another'. Subsequently, trait theory can be identified as an
approach to the study of human personality. The aim of psychologists, specifically trait theorists, is
to explain similarities and differences between individuals based on traits. Although numerous
psychologists differ on the amount of traits that are significant, each theorist categorizes personality
traits along several broad type spectrums. This assignment will focus on comparing and contrasting
Eysenck's Hierarchical Theory of Personality and Costa and McRae's Five Factor Model (FFM), two
different trait theories of personality.
Hans Eysenck, a psychologist well known in the field of personality based his trait theory on
biological explanations; whereby he believed genetic and biological factors were significant
elements of personality (Eysenck 1990). Eysenck also held the view that an individual's personality
traits, or what he referred to as 'temperament' was an exact result of one's genetic make–up
(Chamorro–Premuzic & Furnham, 2005). Eysenck encompassed the idea that there was a need to
highlight the significant dimensions of personality, create a way in which they could be measured
and then link them with experimental procedures. Subsequently, Eysenck developed a model of
personality based on a theoretical and statistical approach to the classification of traits. This is

Psychology, Trait Theory And The Study Of Human...

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Psychology, Trait Theory And The Study Of Human...

Similar to Psychology, Trait Theory And The Study Of Human... (12)

More from Lori Gilbert

More from Lori Gilbert (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Psychology, Trait Theory And The Study Of Human...